The Wisdom to Doubt 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd ii 33//11//0077 22::1122::2244 PPMM Also by J. L. Schellenberg Divine Hiddenness and Human Reason Prolegomena to a Philosophy of Religion 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd iiii 33//11//0077 22::1122::2266 PPMM T he Wisdom to Doubt A Justifi cation of Religious Skepticism j. l. schellenberg Cornell University Press ithaca and london 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd iiiiii 33//11//0077 22::1122::2277 PPMM Copyright © 2007 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For informa- tion, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2007 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schellenberg, J. L., 1959– The wisdom to doubt : a justifi cation of religious skepticism / J.L. Schellenberg. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8014-4554-5 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Religion—Philosophy. 2. Belief and doubt. 3. Skepticism. I. Title. BL51.S427 2007 211’.7—dc22 2006036023 Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally respon- sible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books. Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fi bers. For further information, visit our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu. Cloth printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd iivv 33//11//0077 22::1122::2277 PPMM To Matthew and Justin and all the conversations still to come 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd vv 33//11//0077 22::1122::2277 PPMM 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd vvii 33//11//0077 22::1122::2288 PPMM Contents Preface: An Uncertain Heritage xi Introduction 1 part i. finitude and the future: seven modes of religious skepticism 11 1. The Subject Mode 15 1. Overlooked Evidence 18 2. Neglected Evidence 20 3. Inaccessible Evidence 21 4. Undiscovered Evidence 23 5. Undiscoverable Evidence 24 6. Unrecognized Defeat: A Strategy of Assessment 27 7. Additional Support for the Strategy 39 8. Application of the Strategy to Religious Inquiry 42 9. Is the Subject Mode Self-Defeating? 47 2. The Object Mode 50 1. The Ultimate: Knowable or Unknowable? 51 2. Religious Conceptions of the Ultimate: A dequate or Inadequate? 56 3. Ultimism: Coherent or Incoherent? 64 3. The Retrospective Mode 69 1. General Preliminaries 70 2. The Heart of the Matter: How Religious I nvestigation Has Suffered 71 3. The Skeptical Fallout 86 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd vviiii 33//11//0077 22::1122::2288 PPMM viii Contents 4. The Prospective Mode 91 1. Why the Future Matters Now 93 2. How the Evidence May Change 97 3. Does the Prospective Mode Underwrite Irresponsible Generalization? 105 5. The Modes Combined: Limitation, Immaturity, Presumption 108 1. Combinatorial Reasoning 109 2. The Limitation Mode 112 3. The Immaturity Mode 113 4. The Presumption Mode 115 6. The Bearing of Pragmatic Considerations 118 1. The Benefi ts of Belief 119 2. The Benefi ts of Disbelief 124 3. Passive or Active Skepticism? 128 p art ii. cradles of conviction: the modes applied and fortified 131 7. An Answer to Naturalism 133 1. The Nature of Naturalism 133 2. Arguments for Naturalism 136 3. A More Plausible Naturalism? 151 4. Conclusions 157 8. The Questionableness of Religious Experience 160 1. First-Person Justifi cation: Variations on the Theme 162 2. Innocent until Proven Guilty? 169 3. The Problem of Religious Diversity Revisited 175 4. The Problem of Natural Explanation Introduced 184 5. Final Thoughts 189 part iii. god and the gaps: the modes illustrated and vindicated 191 9. Hiddenness Arguments I 195 1. Parameters of the Discussion 195 2. God, Creation, and Divine-Creature Relationship 198 3. Objections to the Hiddenness Argument 206 4. The Free-Will Defense against the Problem of Hiddenness 218 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd vviiiiii 33//11//0077 22::1122::2288 PPMM Contents ix 10. Hiddenness Arguments II 227 1. Former Believers 228 2. Lifelong Seekers 233 3. Converts to Nontheistic Religion 236 4. Isolated Nontheists 238 5. Conclusion 242 11. The Argument from Horrors 243 1. Developing the Argument 243 2. An Objection to the Argument 254 3. More Objections: The Free-Will Theodicy 256 4. More Objections: The Free-Will Defense 261 12. The Free-Will Offense 270 1. A World without Free Will 271 2. A World without the Free-Will Defense 282 3. The Problems of Free Will 285 4. This Chapter and Previous Arguments 288 13. Consolidating Forces: The Arguments Combined 291 1. The Consolidated Hiddenness Argument 292 2. The Consolidated Argument from Horrors and Free Will 294 3. The Consolidated Argument from Hiddenness, Horrors, and Free Will 295 14. Closing the Case: Seven Proofs and a Skeptical Conclusion 297 1. The Force of the Proofs: An Opening Worry 297 2. The Force of the Proofs: Skeptical Theism 299 3. The Force of the Proofs: Other Theists 304 4. God and the Gaps 306 Epilogue 310 Appendix A. Defi nitions 313 Appendix B. Principles 317 Index 321 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd iixx 33//11//0077 22::1122::2299 PPMM 33005500--002200--22ppaassss--FFMM--rr0033..iinndddd xx 33//11//0077 22::1122::2299 PPMM