ROSHEN DALAL The Vedas An Introduction to Hinduism’s Sacred Texts Contents About the Author Also by Roshen Dalal Dedication Introduction Chapter 1: Vedic Literature: The Four Samhitas Chapter 2: Related Literature Chapter 3: The Origins: The Indo-Europeans Chapter 4: The Iranian Connection Chapter 5: The Indo-Iranian Homeland Chapter 6: The Rig Veda Chapter 7: The Tribes and Clans Chapter 8: The Archaeological Setting Chapter 9: Religion Chapter 10: Ritual and Sacrifice Chapter 11: The Beginnings of Medicine Chapter 12: Two Spiritual Interpretations Conclusion Appendix I Appendix II: A Selection of Hymns from the Four Vedas Select Bibliography Glossary Acknowledgements Follow Penguin Copyright PENGUIN BOOKS THE VEDAS Roshen Dalal was born in Mussoorie and studied in various schools across the country. After a BA (Hons) in History from the university of Bombay, she completed an MA and PhD in ancient Indian history from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. She has taught at both school and university, and been involved in research in the fields of history, religion and philosophy, and education. Apart from books, she has written numerous articles and book reviews. After working for many years as an editor, she is now a full-time writer, living in Dehradun. Also by Roshen Dalal The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide The Illustrated Timeline History of the World The Puffin History of India, Vols 1 and 2 The Puffin History of the World, Vol. 1 For Shahnaz Arni Introduction The Vedas are the most sacred books of Hinduism and, perhaps, the most controversial. There is no agreement on the nature and purpose of the texts, their date, or the origin of the people who composed them. The controversies began almost as soon as the Vedas were translated and became known in the West. In the early 20th century, the great scholar Maurice Winternitz wrote, regarding the Rig Veda: In view of the very great divergence in the opinions of the specialists, it is not enough, even in a book intended for the general reader, merely to give some approximate date, for even the general reader must have an idea of the circumstances supporting the various opinions on the greater or lesser antiquity of the Vedas. (History of Indian Literature, vol. 1, A hymn to Soma) The same principle holds true today both for controversies regarding the date and for other aspects of the texts. One of the most important points of dispute is the question of the homeland of the Vedic people. The other is the question of the region of composition of the Vedas. These two points are also related to the date of the texts. There are four Vedas or Vedic Samhitas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. There are also numerous related texts and commentaries. Based on both language and content, the Rig Veda is usually considered the earliest of the four Samhitas, which makes it the earliest known text in India. This book begins with an overview of the contents of the four Vedas, and the different approaches used to understand them. This is followed by a summary of the related texts and commentaries. Among the important related texts are the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. Special texts that throw light on the Vedas include the padapathas (word texts) and anukramanis (indices). The Vedangas are a further group of early texts, which help in understanding the Vedas. These include texts on grammar and metre. Where were the Vedas composed? And what was the origin of the Vedic Where were the Vedas composed? And what was the origin of the Vedic people? Linguistics and archaeology are believed to provide the keys to answering these crucial questions. Since the late 18th century, it became clear that Sanskrit was related to several European languages including Greek and Latin. An assumption was then made that there must have been an earlier single language from which these languages later diverged. This hypothetical language has been termed Indo-European and its early form, Proto-Indo-European. If there was a single language, it is presumed that there was also a single homeland, from where all the groups speaking this language migrated and diverged, spreading across parts of Europe and Asia. Further, looking at the very close similarities between Rig Vedic Sanskrit and Old Avestan (earliest known language of Iran), it was presumed that one of the early divergent groups consisted of people speaking a language termed Indo-Iranian, which later diverged into the two languages referred to above. In addition, similarities were noticed in religion, myth and culture among the various Indo-European groups, and particularly between the two Indo-Iranian groups. Based on the linguistic theories, archaeologists began searching for an archaeological culture that would represent the early homeland, and various other such cultures that would represent the movements of the groups from the original homeland. In this book, the different Indo-European theories as well as theories regarding language change and diffusion are examined in detail, along with views that oppose or deny these theories. This is followed by a look at the Iranian material, which is essential for understanding the context of the Rig Veda. Despite the similarities in language, myth and ritual, the earliest Iranian texts, known today as the Gathas, provide an account of a very different monotheistic religion, later called Zoroastrianism. It is therefore important to understand the differences as well as the similarities in the Vedic and Avestan materials. Against this background, what sort of information does the Rig Veda itself provide? What is the internal evidence of its date and origin? Can the Rig Veda and Later Vedic texts be equated with archaeological cultures and, if so, which ones? Is it possible, as many have claimed, that the Rig Veda belongs to the period of the Harappan civilization? An overview of the archaeological cultures in early India helps to situate the Vedas while an in-depth study of the texts provides some indications. The study includes a detailed analysis of peoples (tribes or clans), places and rivers mentioned, and their probable locations, as well as the likely identification of the numerous plants, trees and animals