The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expositor's Bible; The Book of the Twelve Prophets, Vol. 2 (of 2), by George Adam Smith This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license Title: The Expositor's Bible; The Book of the Twelve Prophets, Vol. 2 (of 2) Author: George Adam Smith Editor: William Robertson Nicoll Release Date: December 23, 2015 [EBook #50747] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE EXPOSITOR'S BIBLE; TWELVE PROPHETS, VOL. II *** Produced by Charlene Taylor, David Tipple, Colin Bell, Kevin Cathcart, Emeritus Professor of Near Eastern Languages, University College Dublin and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) Transcriber's notes A small number of obvious typos have been corrected. The spelling and punctuation of the book have not been changed. The footnotes have been renumbered from 1 to 1,560 and placed at the end of the text. It is clear from the context that some Hebrew letters are missing from Page 82 of the book. These letters, enclosed in square brackets, have been restored. The HTML file contains 40 external links to other volumes of The Expositor's Bible on the Gutenberg site. If you are reading the HTML file on a computer connected to the internet then you can follow these links. These external links, however, are NOT supported in the Epub and Mobi files even though they may appear as links in some e-book readers. [Pg i] THE EXPOSITOR’S BIBLE EDITED BY THE REV. W. ROBERTSON NICOLL, M.A., LL.D. Editor of “The Expositor” THE BOOK OF THE TWELVE PROPHETS VOL. II.—ZEPHANIAH, NAHUM, HABAKKUK, OBADIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH I.—VIII., “MALACHI,” JOEL, “ZECHARIAH” IX.—XIV. AND JONAH BY GEORGE ADAM SMITH, D.D., LL.D. NEW YORK A. C. ARMSTRONG AND SON 51 EAST TENTH STREET 1898 [Pg ii] T H E E X P O S I TO R ' S B I B L E Crown 8vo, cloth, price $1.50 each vol. FIRST SERIES, 1887–8. Colossians. By A. MACLAREN, D.D. St. Mark. By Very Rev. the Bishop of Derry. Genesis. By Prof. MARCUS DODS, D.D. 1 Samuel. By Prof. W. G. BLAIKIE, D.D. 2 Samuel. By the same Author. Hebrews. By Principal T. C. EDWARDS, D.D. SECOND SERIES, 1888–9. Galatians. By Prof. G. G. FINDLAY, B.A. The Pastoral Epistles. By Rev A. PLUMMER, D.D. Isaiah I.—XXXIX. By Prof. G. A. SMITH, D.D. Vol. I. The Book of Revelation. By Prof. W. MILLIGAN, D.D. 1 Corinthians By Prof. MARCUS DODS, D.D. The Epistles of St. John. By Most Rev. the Archbishop of Armagh. THIRD SERIES, 1889–90. Judges and Ruth. By R. A. WATSON, M.A., D.D. Jeremiah. By Rev. C. J. BALL, M.A. Isaiah XL.—LXVI. By Prof. G. A. SMITH, D.D. Vol. II. St. Matthew. By Rev. J. MONRO GIBSON, D.D. Exodus. By Right Rev. the Bishop of Derry. St. Luke. By Rev. H. BURTON, M.A. FOURTH SERIES, 1890–91. Ecclesiastes. By Rev. SAMUEL Cox, D.D. St. James and St. Jude. By Rev. A. PLUMMER, D.D. Proverbs. By Rev. R. F. HORTON, D.D. Leviticus. By Rev. S. H. KELLOGG, D.D. The Gospel of St. John. By Prof. M. DODS, D.D. Vol. I. The Acts of the Apostles. By Prof. STOKES, D.D. Vol. I. FIFTH SERIES, 1891–2. The Psalms. By A. MACLAREN, D.D. Vol. I. 1 and 2 Thessalonians. By JAMES DENNEY, D.D. The Book of Job. By R. A. WATSON, M.A., D.D. Ephesians. By Prof. G. G. FINDLAY, B.A. The Gospel of St. John. By Prof. M. DODS, D.D. Vol. II. The Acts of the Apostles. By Prof. STOKES, D.D. Vol. II. SIXTH SERIES, 1892–3. 1 Kings. By Very Rev. the Dean of Canterbury. Philippians. By Principal RAINY, D.D. Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. By Prof. W. F. ADENEY, M.A. Joshua. By Prof. W. G. BLAIKIE, D.D. The Psalms. By A. MACLAREN, D.D. Vol. II. The Epistles of St. Peter. By Prof. RAWSON LUMBY, D.D. SEVENTH SERIES, 1893–4. 2 Kings. By Very Rev. the Dean of Canterbury. Romans. By H. C. G. MOULE, M.A., D.D. The Books of Chronicles. By Prof. W. H. BENNETT, M.A. 2 Corinthians. By JAMES DENNEY, D.D. Numbers. By R. A. WATSON, M.A., D.D. The Psalms. By A. MACLAREN, D.D. Vol. III. EIGHTH SERIES, 1895–6. Daniel. By Very Rev. the Dean of Canterbury. The Book of Jeremiah. By Prof. W. H. BENNETT, M.A. Deuteronomy. By Prof. ANDREW HARPER, B.D. The Song of Solomon and Lamentations. By Prof. W. F. ADENEY, M.A. Ezekiel. By Prof. JOHN SKINNER, M.A. The Book of the Twelve Prophets. By Prof. G. A. SMITH, D.D. Two Vols THE BOOK OF THE TWELVE PROPHETS COMMONLY CALLED THE MINOR BY GEORGE ADAM SMITH, D.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR OF HEBREW AND OLD TESTAMENT EXEGESIS FREE CHURCH COLLEGE, GLASGOW IN TWO VOLUMES VOL. II.—ZEPHANIAH, NAHUM, HABAKKUK, OBADIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH I.—VIII., “MALACHI,” JOEL, “ZECHARIAH” IX.—XIV. AND JONAH WITH HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL INTRODUCTIONS NEW YORK A. C. ARMSTRONG AND SON 51 EAST TENTH STREET 1898 [Pg iii] PREFACE The first volume on the Twelve Prophets dealt with the three who belonged to the Eighth Century: Amos, Hosea and Micah. This second volume includes the other nine books arranged in chronological order: Zephaniah, Nahum and Habakkuk, of the Seventh Century; Obadiah, of the Exile; Haggai, Zechariah i.—viii., “Malachi” and Joel, of the Persian Period, 538—331; “Zechariah” ix.—xiv. and the Book of Jonah, of the Greek Period, which began in 332, the date of Alexander’s Syrian campaign. The same plan has been followed as in Volume I. A historical introduction is offered to each period. To each prophet are given, first a chapter of critical introduction, and then one or more chapters of exposition. A complete translation has been furnished, with critical and explanatory notes. All questions of date and of text, and nearly all of interpretation, have been confined to the introductions and the notes, so that those who consult the volume only for expository purposes will find the exposition unencumbered by the discussion of technical points. The necessity of including within one volume so many prophets, scattered over more than three centuries, and each of them requiring a separate introduction, has reduced the space available for the practical application of their teaching to modern life. But this is the less to be regretted, that the contents of the nine books before us are not so applicable to our own day, as we have found their greater predecessors to be. On the other hand, however, they form a more varied introduction to Old Testament Criticism, while, by the long range of time which they cover, and the many stages of religion to which they belong, they afford a wider view of the development of prophecy. Let us look for a little at these two points. 1. To Old Testament Criticism these books furnish valuable introduction—some of them, like Obadiah, Joel and “Zechariah” ix.—xiv., by the great variety of opinion that has prevailed as to their dates or their relation to other prophets with whom they have passages in common; some, like Zechariah and “Malachi,” by their relation to the Law, in the light of modern theories of the origin of the latter; and some, like Joel and Jonah, by the question whether we are to read them as history, or as allegories of history, or as apocalypse. That is to say, these nine books raise, besides the usual questions of genuineness and integrity, every other possible problem of Old Testament Criticism. It has, therefore, been necessary to make the critical introductions full and detailed. The enormous differences of opinion as to the dates of some must start the suspicion of arbitrariness, unless there be included in each case a history of the development of criticism, so as to exhibit to the English reader the principles and the evidence of fact upon which that criticism is based. I am convinced that what is chiefly required just now by the devout student of the Bible is the opportunity to judge for himself how far Old Testament Criticism is an adult science; with what amount of reasonableness it has been prosecuted; how gradually its conclusions have been reached, how jealously they have been contested; and how far, amid the many varieties of opinion which must always exist with reference to facts so ancient and questions so obscure, there has been progress towards agreement upon the leading problems. But, besides the accounts of past criticism given in this volume, the reader will find in each case an independent attempt to arrive at a conclusion. This has not always been successful. A number of points have been left in doubt; and even where results have been stated with some degree of positiveness, the reader need scarcely be warned (after what was said in the Preface to Vol. I.) that many of these must necessarily be provisional. But, in looking back from the close of this work upon the discussions which it contains, I am more than ever convinced of the extreme probability of most of the conclusions. Among these are the following: that the correct interpretation of Habakkuk is to be found in the direction of the position to which Budde’s ingenious proposal has been carried on pages 123 ff. with reference to Egypt; that the most of Obadiah is to be dated from the sixth century; that “Malachi” is an anonymous work from the eve of Ezra’s reforms; that Joel follows “Malachi”; and that “Zechariah” ix.—xiv. has been rightly assigned by Stade to the early years of the Greek Period. I have ventured to contest Kosters’ theory that there was no return of Jewish exiles under Cyrus, and am the more disposed to believe his strong argument inconclusive, not only upon a review of the reasons I have stated in Chap. XVI., but on this ground also, that many of its chief adherents in this country and Germany have so modified it as virtually to give up its main contention. I think, too, there can be little doubt as to the substantial authenticity of Zephaniah ii. (except the verses on Moab and Ammon) and iii. 1–13, of Habakkuk ii. 5 ff., and of the whole of Haggai; or as to the ungenuine character of the lyric piece in Zechariah ii. and the intrusion of “Malachi” ii. 11–13a. On these and smaller points the reader will find full discussion at the proper places. [I may here add a word or two upon some of the critical conclusions reached in Vol. I., which have been recently contested. The student will find strong grounds offered by Canon Driver in his Joel and Amos[1] for the authenticity of those passages in Amos which, following other critics, I regarded or suspected as not authentic. It makes one diffident in one’s opinions when Canon Driver supports Professors Kuenen and Robertson Smith on the other side. But on a survey of the case I am unable to feel that even they have removed what they admit to be “forcible” objections to the authorship by Amos of the passages in question. They seem to me to have established not more than a possibility that the passages are authentic; and on the whole I still feel that the probability is in the other direction. If I am right, then I think that the date of the apostrophes to Jehovah’s creative power which occur in the Book of Amos, and the reference to astral deities in chap. v. 27, may be that which I have suggested on pages 8 and 9 [Pg v] [Pg vi] [Pg vii] [Pg viii] [Pg ix] of this volume. Some critics have charged me with inconsistency in denying the authenticity of the epilogue to Amos while defending that of the epilogue to Hosea. The two cases, as my arguments proved, are entirely different. Nor do I see any reason to change the conclusions of Vol. I. upon the questions of the authenticity of various parts of Micah.] The text of the nine prophets treated in this volume has presented even more difficulties than that of the three treated in Vol. I. And these difficulties must be my apology for the delay of this volume. 2. But the critical and textual value of our nine books is far exceeded by the historical. Each exhibits a development of Hebrew prophecy of the greatest interest. From this point of view, indeed, the volume might be entitled “The Passing of the Prophet.” For throughout our nine books we see the spirit and the style of the classic prophecy of Israel gradually dissolving into other forms of religious thought and feeling. The clear start from the facts of the prophet’s day, the ancient truths about Jehovah and Israel, and the direct appeal to the conscience of the prophet’s contemporaries, are not always given, or when given are mingled, coloured and warped by other religious interests, both present and future, which are even powerful enough to shake the ethical absolutism of the older prophets. With Nahum and Obadiah the ethical is entirely missed in the presence of the claims—and we cannot deny that they were natural claims—of the long- suffering nation’s hour of revenge upon her heathen tyrants. With Zephaniah prophecy, still austerely ethical, passes under the shadow of apocalypse; and the future is solved, not upon purely historical lines, but by the intervention of “supernatural” elements. With Habakkuk the ideals of the older prophets encounter the shock of the facts of experience: we have the prophet as sceptic. Upon the other margin of the Exile, Haggai and Zechariah (i.—viii.), although they are as practical as any of their predecessors, exhibit the influence of the exilic developments of ritual, angelology and apocalypse. God appears further off from Zechariah than from the prophets of the eighth century, and in need of mediators, human and superhuman. With Zechariah the priest has displaced the prophet, and it is very remarkable that no place is found for the latter beside the two sons of oil, the political and priestly heads of the community, who, according to the Fifth Vision, stand in the presence of God and between them feed the religious life of Israel. Nearly sixty years later “Malachi” exhibits the working of Prophecy within the Law, and begins to employ the didactic style of the later Rabbinism. Joel starts, like any older prophet, from the facts of his own day, but these hurry him at once into apocalypse; he calls, as thoroughly as any of his predecessors, to repentance, but under the imminence of the Day of the Lord, with its “supernatural” terrors, he mentions no special sin and enforces no single virtue. The civic and personal ethics of the earlier prophets are absent. In the Greek Period, the oracles now numbered from the ninth to the fourteenth chapters of the Book of Zechariah repeat to aggravation the exulting revenge of Nahum and Obadiah, without the strong style or the hold upon history which the former exhibits, and show us prophecy still further enwrapped in apocalypse. But in the Book of Jonah, though it is parable and not history, we see a great recovery and expansion of the best elements of prophecy. God’s character and Israel’s true mission to the world are revealed in the spirit of Hosea and of the Seer of the Exile, with much of the tenderness, the insight, the analysis of character and even the humour of classic prophecy. These qualities raise the Book of Jonah, though it is probably the latest of our Twelve, to the highest rank among them. No book is more worthy to stand by the side of Isaiah xl.—lv.; none is nearer in spirit to the New Testament. All this gives unity to the study of prophets so far separate in time, and so very distinct in character, from each other. From Zephaniah to Jonah, or over a period of three centuries, they illustrate the dissolution of Prophecy and its passage into other forms of religion. The scholars, to whom every worker in this field is indebted, are named throughout the volume. I regret that Nowack’s recent commentary on the Minor Prophets (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht) reached me too late for use (except in footnotes) upon the earlier of the nine prophets. GEORGE ADAM SMITH. [Pg x] [Pg xi] [Pg xii] CONTENTS OF VOL. II. PAGE Preface v Chronological Tables [These Tables are in Volume I.] INTRODUCTION TO THE PROPHETS OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY CHAP. I. THE SEVENTH CENTURY BEFORE CHRIST 3 1. REACTION UNDER MANASSEH AND AMON (695?—639). 2. THE EARLY YEARS OF JOSIAH (639—625): JEREMIAH AND ZEPHANIAH 3. THE REST OF THE CENTURY (625—586): THE FALL OF NINIVEH; NAHUM AND HABAKKUK. ZEPHANIAH II. THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH 35 III. THE PROPHET AND THE REFORMERS 46 ZEPHANIAH i.—ii. 3. IV. NINIVE DELENDA 61 ZEPHANIAH ii. 4–15. V. SO AS BY FIRE 67 ZEPHANIAH iii. NAHUM VI. THE BOOK OF NAHUM 77 1. THE POSITION OF ELḲÔSH. 2. THE AUTHENTICITY OF CHAP. i. 3. THE DATE OF CHAPS. ii. AND iii VII. THE VENGEANGE OF THE LORD 90 NAHUM i. VIII. THE SIEGE AND FALL OF NINIVEH 96 [Pg xiii] [Pg xiv] NAHUM ii. AND iii. HABAḲḲUḲ IX. THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK 115 1. CHAP. i. 2—ii. 4 (OR 8). 2. CHAP. ii. 5–20. 3. CHAP. iii. X. THE PROPHET AS SCEPTIC 129 HABBAKKUK i.—ii. 4. XI. TYRANNY IS SUICIDE 143 HABBAKKUK ii. 5–20. XII. “IN THE MIDST OF THE YEARS” 149 HABBAKKUK iii. OBADIAH XIII. THE BOOK OF OBADIAH 163 XIV. EDOM AND ISRAEL 177 OBADIAH 1–21. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROPHETS OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD (539—331 B.C.) XV. ISRAEL UNDER THE PERSIANS 187 XVI. FROM THE RETURN FROM BABYLON TO THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE (536—516 B.C.) 198 WITH A DISCUSSION OF PROFESSOR KOSTERS' THEORY. HAGGAI XVII. THE BOOK OF HAGGAI 225 XVIII. HAGGAI AND THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE 234 HAGGAI. i., ii. 1. THE CALL TO BUILD (CHAP. i.). 2. COURAGE, ZERUBBABEL! COURAGE, JEHOSHUA AND ALL THE PEOPLE! (CHAP. ii. 1–9). 3. THE POWER OF THE UNCLEAN (Chap. ii. 10–19). [Pg xv] 4. THE REINVESTMENT OF ISRAEL'S HOPE (CHAP. ii. 20–23). ZECHARIAH (I.—VIII.) XIX. THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH (I.—VIII.) 255 XX. ZECHARIAH THE PROPHET 264 ZECHARIAH i. 1–6, ETC.; EZRA v. 1, vi. 14. XXI. THE VISIONS OF ZECHARIAH 273 ZECHARIAH i. 7—vi. 1. THE INFLUENCES WHICH MOULDED THE VISIONS. 2. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE VISIONS. 3. EXPOSITION OF THE SEVERAL VISIONS: THE FIRST: THE ANGEL-HORSEMEN (i. 7–17). THE SECOND: THE FOUR HORNS AND THE FOUR SMITHS (i. 18–21 ENG.). THE THIRD: THE CITY OF PEACE (ii. 1–5 ENG). THE FOURTH: THE HIGH PRIEST AND THE SATAN (iii. ). THE FIFTH: THE TEMPLE CANDLESTICK AND THE TWO OLIVE-TREES (iv. ). THE SIXTH: THE WINGED VOLUME (v. 1–4 ). THE SEVENTH: THE WOMAN IN THE BARREL (v. 5–11). THE EIGHTH: THE CHARIOTS OF THE FOUR WINDS (vi. 1–8). THE RESULT OF THE VISIONS (vi. 9–15). XXII. THE ANGELS OF THE VISIONS 310 ZECHARIAH i. 7—vi. 8. XXIII. “THE SEED OF PEACE” 320 ZECHARIAH vii., viii. “MALACHI” XXIV. THE BOOK OF “MALACHI” 331 XXV. FROM ZECHARIAH TO “MALACHI” 341 XXVI. PROPHECY WITHIN THE LAW 348 “MALACHI” i.—iv. (ENG.) 1. GOD'S LOVE FOR ISRAEL AND HATRED OF EDOM (i. 2–5). 2. “HONOUR THY FATHER” (i. 6–14). [Pg xvi] [Pg xvii] 3. THE PRIESTHOD OF KNOWLEDGE (ii. 1–9). 4. THE CRUELTY OF DIVORCE (ii. 10–16). 5. “WHERE IS THE GOD OF JUDGMENT?” (ii. 17—iii. 5). 6. REPENTANCE BY TITHES (iii. 6–12). 7. THE JUDGMENT TO COME (iii. 13—iv. 2 ENG.). 8. THE RETURN OF ELIJAH (iv. 3–5 ENG.). JOEL XXVII. THE BOOK OF JOEL 375 1. THE DATE OF THE BOOK. 2. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE BOOK. 3. STATE OF THE TEXT AND THE STYLE OF THE BOOK. XXVIII. THE LOCUSTS AND THE DAY OF THE LORD. 398 JOEL i.—ii. 17. XXIX. PROSPERITY AND THE SPIRIT 418 JOEL ii. 18–32 (ENG.) 1. THE RETURN OF PROSPERITY (ii. 19–27). 2. THE OUTPOURING OF THE SPIRIT (ii. 28–32). XXX. THE JUDGMENT OF THE HEATHEN 431 JOEL iii (ENG.). INTRODUCTION TO THE PROPHETS OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD (FROM 331 ONWARDS) XXXI. ISRAEL AND THE GREEKS 439 “ZECHARIAH” (IX.—XIV.) XXXII. “ZECHARIAH” IX.—XIV. 449 XXXIII. THE CONTENTS OF “ZECHARIAH” IX.—XIV. 463 1. THE COMING OF THE GREEKS (ix. 1–8). 2. THE PRINCE OF PEACE (ix. 9–12). 3. THE SLAUGHTER OF THE GREEKS (ix. 13–17). 4. AGAINST THE TERAPHIM AND SORCERERS (x. 1, 2). 5. AGAINST EVIL SHEPHERDS (x. 3–12). [Pg xviii] 6. WAR UPON THE SYRIAN TYRANTS (xi. 1–3). 7. THE REJECTION AND MURDER OF THE GOOD SHEPHERD (xi. 4–17, xiii. 7– 9). 8. JUDAH versus JERUSALEM (xii. 1–7). 9. FOUR RESULTS OF JERUSALEM'S DELIVERANCE (xii. 8—xiii. 6). 10. JUDGMENT OF THE HEATHEN AND SANCTIFICATION OF JERUSALEM (xiv.). JONAH XXXIV. THE BOOK OF JONAH 493 1. THE DATE OF THE BOOK. 2. THE CHARACTER OF THE BOOK. 3. THE PURPOSE OF THE BOOK. 4. OUR LORD'S USE OF THE BOOK. 5. THE UNITY OF THE BOOK. XXXV. THE GREAT REFUSAL 514 JONAH i. XXXVI. THE GREAT FISH AND WHAT IT MEANS—THE PSALM 523 JONAH ii. XXXVII. THE REPENTANCE OF THE CITY 529 JONAH iii. XXXVIII. ISRAEL'S JEALOUSY OF JEHOVAH 536 JONAH iv. INDEX OF PROPHETS 543 [Pg xix] INTRODUCTION TO THE PROPHETS OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY [Pg 2] CHAPTER I THE SEVENTH CENTURY BEFORE CHRIST The three prophets who were treated in the first volume of this work belonged to the eighth century before Christ: if Micah lived into the seventh his labours were over by 675. The next group of our twelve, also three in number, Zephaniah, Nahum and Habakkuk, did not appear till after 630. To make our study continuous[2] we must now sketch the course of Israel’s history between. In another volume of this series,[3] some account was given of the religious progress of Israel from Isaiah and the Deliverance of Jerusalem in 701 to Jeremiah and the Fall of Jerusalem in 587. Isaiah’s strength was bent upon establishing the inviolableness of Zion. Zion, he said, should not be taken, and the people, though cut to their roots, should remain planted in their own land, the stock of a noble nation in the latter days. But Jeremiah predicted the ruin both of City and Temple, summoned Jerusalem’s enemies against her in the name of Jehovah, and counselled his people to submit to them. This reversal of the prophetic ideal had a twofold reason. In the first place the moral condition of Israel was worse in 600 B.C. than it had been in 700; another century had shown how much the nation needed the penalty and purgation of exile. But secondly, however the inviolableness of Jerusalem had been required in the interests of pure religion in 701, religion had now to show that it was independent even of Zion and of Israel’s political survival. Our three prophets of the eighth century (as well as Isaiah himself) had indeed preached a gospel which implied this, but it was reserved to Jeremiah to prove that the existence of state and temple was not indispensable to faith in God, and to explain the ruin of Jerusalem, not merely as a well-merited penance, but as the condition of a more spiritual intercourse between Jehovah and His people. It is our duty to trace the course of events through the seventh century, which led to this change of the standpoint of prophecy, and which moulded the messages especially of Jeremiah’s contemporaries, Zephaniah, Nahum and Habakkuk. We may divide the century into three periods: First, that of the Reaction and Persecution under Manasseh and Amon, from 695 or 690 to 639, during which prophecy was silent or anonymous; Second, that of the Early Years of Josiah, 639 to 625, near the end of which we meet with the young Jeremiah and Zephaniah; Third, the Rest of the Century, 625 to 600, covering the Decline and Fall of Niniveh, and the prophets Nahum and Habakkuk, with an addition carrying on the history to the Fall of Jerusalem in 587—6. 1. REACTION UNDER MANASSEH AND AMON (695?—639). Jerusalem was delivered in 701, and the Assyrians kept away from Palestine for twenty-three years.[4] Judah had peace, and Hezekiah was free to devote his latter days to the work of purifying the worship of his people. What he exactly achieved is uncertain. The historian imputes to him the removal of the high places, the destruction of all Maççeboth and Asheras, and of the brazen serpent.[5] That his measures were drastic is probable from the opinions of Isaiah, who was their inspiration, and proved by the reaction which they provoked when Hezekiah died. The removal of the high places and the concentration of the national worship within the Temple would be the more easy that the provincial sanctuaries had been devastated by the Assyrian invasion, and that the shrine of Jehovah was glorified by the raising of the siege of 701. While the first of Isaiah’s great postulates for the future, the inviolableness of Zion, had been fulfilled, the second, the reign of a righteous prince in Israel, seemed doomed to disappointment. Hezekiah died early in the seventh century,[6] and was succeeded by his son Manasseh, a boy of twelve, who appears to have been captured by the party whom his father had opposed. The few years’ peace—peace in Israel was always dangerous to the health of the higher religion—the interests of those who had suffered from the reforms, the inevitable reaction which a rigorous puritanism provokes—these swiftly reversed the religious fortunes of Israel. Isaiah’s and Micah’s predictions of the final overthrow of Assyria seemed falsified, when in 681 the more vigorous Asarhaddon succeeded Sennacherib, and in 678 swept the long absent armies back upon Syria. Sidon was destroyed, and twenty-two princes of Palestine immediately yielded their tribute to the conqueror. Manasseh was one of them, and his political homage may have brought him, as it brought Ahaz, within the infection of foreign idolatries.[7] Everything, in short, worked for the revival of that eclectic paganism which Hezekiah had striven to stamp out. The high places were rebuilt; altars were erected to Baal, with the sacred pole of Asherah, as in the time of Ahab;[8] shrines to the host of heaven defiled the courts of Jehovah’s house; there was a recrudescence of soothsaying, divination and traffic with the dead. But it was all very different from the secure and sunny temper which Amos had encountered in Northern Israel.[9] The terrible Assyrian invasions had come between. Life could never again feel so stable. Still more destructive had been the social poisons which our prophets described as sapping the constitution of Israel for nearly three generations. The rural simplicity was corrupted by those economic changes which Micah bewails. With the ousting of the old families from the soil, a thousand traditions, memories and habits must have been broken, which had preserved the people’s presence of mind in days of sudden disaster, and had carried them, for instance, through so long a trial as the Syrian [Pg 3] [Pg 4] [Pg 5] [Pg 6] [Pg 7] wars. Nor could the blood of Israel have run so pure after the luxury and licentiousness described by Hosea and Isaiah. The novel obligations of commerce, the greed to be rich, the increasing distress among the poor, had strained the joyous temper of that nation of peasants’ sons, whom we met with Amos, and shattered the nerves of their rulers. There is no word of fighting in Manasseh’s days, no word of revolt against the tyrant. Perhaps also the intervening puritanism, which had failed to give the people a permanent faith, had at least awakened within them a new conscience. At all events there is now no more ease in Zion, but a restless fear, driving the people to excesses of religious zeal. We do not read of the happy country festivals of the previous century, nor of the careless pride of that sudden wealth which built vast palaces and loaded the altar of Jehovah with hecatombs. The full-blooded patriotism, which at least kept ritual in touch with clean national issues, has vanished. The popular religion is sullen and exasperated. It takes the form of sacrifices of frenzied cruelty and lust. Children are passed through the fire to Moloch, and the Temple is defiled by the orgies of those who abuse their bodies to propitiate a foreign and a brutal god.[10] But the most certain consequence of a religion whose nerves are on edge is persecution, and this raged all the earlier years of Manasseh. The adherents of the purer faith were slaughtered, and Jerusalem drenched[11] with innocent blood. Her own sword, says Jeremiah, devoured the prophets like a destroying lion.[12] It is significant that all that has come down to us from this “killing time” is anonymous;[13] we do not meet with our next group of public prophets till Manasseh and his like-minded son have passed away. Yet prophecy was not wholly stifled. Voices were raised to predict the exile and destruction of the nation. Jehovah spake by His servants;[14] while others wove into the prophecies of an Amos, a Hosea or an Isaiah some application of the old principles to the new circumstances. It is probable, for instance, that the extremely doubtful passage in the Book of Amos, v. 26 f., which imputes to Israel as a whole the worship of astral deities from Assyria, is to be assigned to the reign of Manasseh. In its present position it looks very like an intrusion: nowhere else does Amos charge his generation with serving foreign gods; and certainly in all the history of Israel we could not find a more suitable period for so specific a charge than the days when into the central sanctuary of the national worship images were introduced of the host of heaven, and the nation was, in consequence, threatened with exile.[15] In times of persecution the documents of the suffering faith have ever been reverenced and guarded with especial zeal. It is not improbable that the prophets, driven from public life, gave themselves to the arrangement of the national scriptures; and some critics date from Manasseh’s reign the weaving of the two earliest documents of the Pentateuch into one continuous book of history.[16] The Book of Deuteronomy forms a problem by itself. The legislation which composes the bulk of it[17] appears to have been found among the Temple archives at the end of our period, and presented to Josiah as an old and forgotten work.[18] There is no reason to charge with fraud those who made the presentation by affirming that they really invented the book. They were priests of Jerusalem, but the book is written by members of the prophetic party, and ostensibly in the interests of the priests of the country. It betrays no tremor of the awful persecutions of Manasseh’s reign; it does not hint at the distinction, then for the first time apparent, between a false and a true Israel. But it does draw another distinction, familiar to the eighth century, between the true and the false prophets. The political and spiritual premisses of the doctrine of the book were all present by the end of the reign of Hezekiah, and it is extremely improbable that his reforms, which were in the main those of Deuteronomy, were not accompanied by some code, or by some appeal to the fountain of all law in Israel. But whether the Book of Deuteronomy now existed or not, there were those in the nation who through all the dark days between Hezekiah and Josiah laid up its truth in their hearts and were ready to assist the latter monarch in his public enforcement of it. While these things happened within Judah, very great events were taking place beyond her borders. Asarhaddon of Assyria (681—668) was a monarch of long purposes and thorough plans. Before he invaded Egypt, he spent a year (675) in subduing the restless tribes of Northern Arabia, and another (674) in conquering the peninsula of Sinai, an ancient appanage of Egypt. Tyre upon her island baffled his assaults, but the rest of Palestine remained subject to him. He received his reward in carrying the Assyrian arms farther into Egypt than any of his predecessors, and about 670 took Memphis from the Ethiopian Pharaoh Taharka. Then he died. Assurbanipal, who succeeded, lost Egypt for a few years, but about 665, with the help of his tributaries in Palestine, he overthrew Taharka, took Thebes, and established along the Nile a series of vassal states. He quelled a revolt there in 663 and overthrew Memphis for a second time. The fall of the Egyptian capital resounds through the rest of the century; we shall hear its echoes in Nahum. Tyre fell at last with Arvad in 662. But the Assyrian empire had grown too vast for human hands to grasp, and in 652 a general revolt took place in Egypt, Arabia, Palestine, Elam, Babylon and Asia Minor. In 649 Assurbanipal reduced Elam and Babylon; and by two further campaigns (647 and 645) Hauran, Edom, Ammon, Moab, Nabatea and all the northern Arabs. On his return from these he crossed Western Palestine to the sea and punished Usu and Akko. It is very remarkable that, while Assurbanipal, who thus fought the neighbours of Judah, makes no mention of her, nor numbers Manasseh among the rebels whom he chastised, the Book of Chronicles should contain the statement that Jehovah sent upon Manasseh the captains of the host of the king of Assyria, who bound him with fetters and carried him to Babylon.[19] What grounds the Chronicler had for such a statement are quite unknown to us. He introduces [Pg 8] [Pg 9] [Pg 10] [Pg 11]