The syntax and semantics of locating adverbials Michel Aurnague, Myriam Bras, Laure Vieu, Nicholas Asher To cite this version: Michel Aurnague, Myriam Bras, Laure Vieu, Nicholas Asher. The syntax and semantics of locating adverbials. Cahiers de Grammaire, 2001, Sémantique et Discours, 26, pp.11-35. ￿hal-00671620￿ HAL Id: hal-00671620 https://hal.science/hal-00671620 Submitted on 17 Feb 2012 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. The Syntax and Semantics of Locating Adverbials Michel Aurnague*, Myriam Bras**, Laure Vieu** & Nicholas Asher*** Cette étude examine les propriétés des adverbiaux de localisation du français à plusieurs niveaux. La structure syntaxique de ces éléments est décrite de même que les interactions complexes entre position dans la phrase et contribution sémantique. En se focalisant sur la position d'adjoint du syntagme verbal, on montre que le contenu sémantique des marqueurs considérés est mieux saisi par une approche 'relationnelle' que par une approche 'référentielle'. Une sémantique compositionnelle des adverbiaux en position de VP-adjoints est finalement proposée. This study examines the properties of French locating adverbials at several levels. The syntactic structure of these elements is analyzed just as the complex interactions between their position in the sentence and their semantic contribution. Focusing on the position of adjunct of the verb phrase, we show that the semantic content of the considered markers is better grasped by a 'relational' approach than by a 'referential' approach. Finally, a compositional semantics of adverbials in VP-adjunct position is proposed. * ERSS, Université Toulouse-Le Mirail. ** IRIT, Université Paul Sabatier. *** University of Texas at Austin. Cahiers de Grammaire 26 (2001), « Sémantique et Discours », pp. 11-35 Michel Aurnague, Myriam Bras, Laure Vieu & Nicholas Asher 1. Introduction This paper deals with the semantics of locating adverbials in French. These are adverbials operating a single temporal or spatial localization such as le 23 Mars 2002 (on March 23, 2002), trois jours plus tard (three days later), à Toulouse (at Toulouse) and devant la maison (in front of the house) in example (1): (1) Joan naquit le 23 Mars 2002 à Toulouse. Il arriva à Ayguevives trois jours plus tard. Les voisins l'attendaient devant la maison. (Joan was born on March 23, 2002 in Toulouse. He went to Ayguevives three days later. The neighbors were waiting for him in front of the house.) They are used to locate the main eventuality of the sentence in which they appear in space and/or in time. Quite complex adverbials can be formed from prepositions and noun phrases, and even from other complex adverbials, in a recursive manner, as in deux jours après la réunion (d’)avant les vacances (two days after the meeting before the holidays). They are often anaphoric and as such contribute to the cohesion of a discourse. These constructions, however, have not received a complete analysis. On the one hand their syntax as complex adverbial phrases has not been much described in the literature. On the other hand, their semantics lacks a full-fledged compositional analysis1. Further, the important discursive role of adverbials, observed in many descriptive accounts of discourse structure, has not been integrated with such a compositional semantic analysis. We therefore adopt a transversal approach whose aim is to provide an analysis all the way from the syntactic level to the lexical semantics level and up to the discourse level. Built on the basis of a principled syntactic analysis, the required compositional semantics for locating adverbials typically needs to involve underspecified (e.g., anaphoric) elements. Then, this semantics has to be embedded within a theory of discourse structure and interpretation in 12 order to resolve these underspecified elements. In this paper, we tackle the first, sentential, part of this task, keeping the general, discursive, aim in mind. After having delimited our study and discussed the syntactic function of these adverbials within the sentence (Section 2), we describe the internal syntactic structure we propose for the whole class of complex locating adverbials (Section 3). Then, we describe how they behave meaning-wise (Section 4), and present our compositional semantic analysis (Section 5). We try to systematically account for the structural and semantic similarities between temporal locating adverbials and spatial ones. This is particularly relevant not only because these similarities are great, but also because these adverbials in trajectory contexts take up a spatio-temporal interpretation (Asher et al. 1995b), as those of (2): 1 Some proposals, as that of (Pratt & Francez 2001) do exist, though. Cahiers de Grammaire 26 (2001) The Syntax and Semantics of Location Adverbials (2) On ne voyait rien du paysage. Il pleuvait à verse depuis Toulouse. À Cordes, la pluie se transforma en grêle, et, dix minutes plus tard / dix kilomètres plus loin, le tonnerre se mit à gronder. (We couldn't see anything of the landscape. It had been pouring from rain from Toulouse. At Cordes, the rain became hail, and ten minutes later / ten kilometers further, there were rumbles of thunder.) The discursive role of these adverbials will be fully discussed in a follow-up article. 2. Adverbials Considered in this Study and their Syntactic Role We have already quoted some adverbials we want to deal with: le 23 Mars 2002, à Toulouse, trois jours plus tard, devant la maison, depuis Toulouse, dix kilomètres plus loin. We could add to this list: à huit heures (at 8), le premier jour des vacances (on the first day of holidays), depuis une heure (for one hour / since 1 o'clock), jusqu’à midi (until noon), au bout de trois kilomètres (after three km). From a syntactic point of view, these adverbials are all Preposition Phrases, as we will see in the next section. From a semantic point of view, they all include nouns whose lexical semantics bears a temporal or spatial feature such as heure, jour, midi, lundi for the temporal ones, and such as kilomètre, maison, Toulouse for the spatial ones. Be they spatial or temporal, they can be classified in two groups: those expressing a duration or a spatial span such as deux heures, un mois, deux kilomètres (two hours, one month, two kilometers), and those expressing a temporal or spatial location such as ce matin-là, la semaine suivante, Noël, le jardin, Toulouse (that morning, the following week, Christmas, the garden, Toulouse). We exclude from our study adverbials like tous les matins (every morning) that introduce multiple localization through a quantification; indeed, temporal quantification adverbials have already been well-studied. Adverbials based on an NP denoting a temporal or spatial extension are locating adverbials if they involve an anaphoric element anchoring them, like 13 depuis deux jours or dix kilomètres plus loin; we do not consider here those adverbials that only express a duration or spatial extension and do not actually locate the eventuality in space or time, such as pendant trois jours (during three days), sur trois kilomètres (over three kilometers) or en deux heures (in two hours). We won’t say anything about adverbial constructions such as quand Luc était à Toulouse (when Luc was in Toulouse), depuis que Paul était entré dans la ville (since Paul had entered the town), jusqu’à ce qu’il fût passé devant la maison (until he passed (in front of) the house) because they introduce subordinate clauses and, as a consequence, call for other kinds of analyses and tools. Last, we will not consider adverbs whose semantics primarily plays a part at the discourse structure level rather than at the spatio-temporal structure level, as we showed it for puis (then) in (Bras et al. 2001). Other adverbs such as alors (then) or ensuite (next) are also discourse connectives, and as such are not considered here. Cahiers de Grammaire 26 (2001) Michel Aurnague, Myriam Bras, Laure Vieu & Nicholas Asher A number of studies have regarded the syntactic and semantic roles of French temporal and spatial adverbials, or their English or German equivalents. Some of them consider adverbials in general, and are not specific to temporal and spatial locating adverbials (Quirk & Greenbaum 1973, Leech & Svartvik 1975, Bellert 1977, Mélis 1983, Gross 1990, Nølke 1990, Parsons 1990, McKercher 1996, Molinier & Lévrier 2000); most studies concerned with temporal adverbials are actually dealing with temporal clauses or with quantificational adverbials (de Swart 1991, Johnston 1994, Le Draoulec 1997, Pratt & Francez 2001); only a few address temporal or spatial locating adverbials specifically (Maienborn 1995, Pratt & Francez 2001). Some of these studies distinguish various syntactic functions, and accordingly different positions on the trees; others take for granted a single possible position, usually VP-adjunct. In a similar way as Maienborn (1995) does, we will consider the two IP-adjunct (sentential modifier) and VP- adjunct (VP modifier) positions and distinguish them from the V'-adjunct (verb modifier), and V-complement (verb argument) positions. In VP-adjunct position, a temporal or spatial locating PP modifies the verb phrase, which, semantically speaking, means that it specifies the location of the eventuality described by the VP. For instance, we take the two PPs in (3) to be VP-adjuncts: (3) Marie dansa sur la terrasse jusqu'à l'aube. (Marie danced on the terrace till dawn.) This VP-adjunct position is to be distinguished from the argument position, i.e., mandatory (although not necessarily realized) complements of the verb, as in (4) and (5), as well as from the V'-adjunct position, or facultative complements, as sur la terrasse in (6). Real complements and V'- adjuncts do not locate the eventuality as a whole but rather interact with the 14 verb to make its semantics more precise (Boons 1987, Asher & Sablayrolles 1995, Maienborn 1995), and as a result will not be considered any further here. (4) Marie sortit (de la maison). (Marie came out (of the house).) (5) La fête dura du matin jusqu'au soir. (The party lasted from the morning to the evening.) (6) Marie sortit de la maison sur la terrasse. (Marie came out of the house onto the terrace.) In IP-adjunct position, a temporal or spatial locating PP modifies the whole sentence, which, semantically speaking, means that it modifies the truth-conditions of the whole proposition, i.e., it says when or where the sentence is true. This is what happens in Maienborn's (1995) example (7) which can be paraphrased with a when-clause: when she was in Bolivia, Cahiers de Grammaire 26 (2001) The Syntax and Semantics of Location Adverbials Maria had red hair. So-called frame-adverbials are also IP-adjuncts: they introduce a temporal or spatial referent that serves as an index at which a number of propositions are evaluated, as in (8) and (9). (7) In Bolivia, Maria had red hair. (8) Le lundi, Luc arriva et Paul partit. (On the Monday, Luc arrived and Paul left.) (9) A Toulouse, il faisait soleil et le vent était doux. (At Toulouse, the sun was shining and the wind was warm.) As suggested by examples (7-9), an initial position with a separating comma is typical of IP-adjuncts. Symmetrically, an ending position without a separating comma, as in (1-3), is typical of VP-adjuncts. Indeed, some adverbs which are only sentence modifiers like heureusement (fortunately) cannot occur in ending position without a comma: (10) Heureusement, Luc arriva. (Fortunately, Luc arrived.) (11) *Luc arriva heureusement. It may seem that since locating adverbials can appear both in IP- and VP-adjunct position, this distinction is not really relevant to us. This is not so. In some cases, the two positions yield very different readings. In (12), the adverbial à huit heures introduces a time referent at which it is said to be true that Marie has eaten earlier, whereas in (13), the adverbial situates the eating event itself at eight o'clock while the pluperfect tense situates this event before some other salient temporal referent. (12) A huit heures, Marie avait mangé. (At eight, Marie had eaten.) (13) Marie avait mangé à huit heures. (Marie had eaten at eight.) A large number of tests have been devised to distinguish the IP- and VP-adjunct positions for adverbials in general, both for French (Molinier & 15 Lévrier 2000) and for English (McKercher 1996). According to these tests, and as seen with (12-13) for instance, temporal and spatial adverbials have an ambivalent status: they cannot be categorized as either IP-adjuncts or VP- adjuncts once and for all, contrarily to an adverbial like heureusement, for instance. Molinier and Lévrier (2000) show that while temporal adverbials are closely related to the verb (possibility of a cleft construction: c’est à huit heures que Marie mangea (it is at 8 that Marie ate)), their scope can nevertheless include the whole sentence (possibility to appear in an initial detached position in a negative sentence: (14)). Similarly, McKercher (1996) underlines that spatial adverbials often behave as ‘sentence adjuncts’, although they clearly fulfill the properties of ‘predicate modifiers’. These observations are not really contradictory; they just point out that it is necessary to identify the right syntactic position on each occasion of use. Cahiers de Grammaire 26 (2001) Michel Aurnague, Myriam Bras, Laure Vieu & Nicholas Asher In order to determine the position and function of a given locating adverbial (and since the initial/final position criterion is a good but not decisive enough indication) we will use a test that assumes that IP-adjuncts cannot fall under the scope of the negation, while VP-adjuncts can: (14) A huit heures, Marie ne mangea pas (mais à dix heures *ø/si). (At eight, Marie did not eat (but at ten ø/she did).) (15) Marie ne mangea pas à huit heures (mais à dix heures). (Marie did not eat at eight (but at ten).) In (14), the negation bears only on the event, which means that the sentence asserts that Marie did not eat. In contrast, in (15) the reading in which the negation bears on the adverbial is available, and the sentence could even presuppose that Marie did eat (as with the paraphrase: ce n'est pas à huit heures que Marie mangea (it is not at eight that Marie ate)), as the possible continuation shows it. In the remainder of this paper, we will focus our analysis on the VP- adjunct use, that we take, as most scholars, to be the primary one. It may be possible to explain the change of contribution of the adverbial between its VP-adjunct use and its IP-adjunct one by some kind of type-lifting corresponding to the syntactic movement, although we will not explore this further here. We will leave the IP-adjunct case for a future paper in which we will tackle, more generally, the discourse effects of locating adverbials. The IP-adjunct position gives rise to several contextual effects, like the spatio- temporal interpretation of à Cordes, 10 km plus loin and 10 mn plus tard in (2) or the frame role of le lundi and à Toulouse in (8-9), that can both be fully analyzed in a discursive context only. 3. Internal Syntactic Structure of Locating Adverbials Although the position and function of locating adverbials has been discussed 16 in the literature, their internal syntactic structure has not been systematically described and analyzed. Here, we take our locating adverbials, be they in VP- adjunct or IP-adjunct position, to have the general syntactic structure shown on Figure 1. Two preliminary remarks have to be made concerning this basic structure. First, the head of the prepositional phrase can be a lexically empty element as in ø hier (yesterday), ø la veille (the day before) or ø le lundi (on the Monday). This entails that, although not lexicalized, we consider that an element playing the syntactic and semantic part of a preposition is present in those expressions (such an assumption is corroborated by comparisons with other languages). Cahiers de Grammaire 26 (2001) The Syntax and Semantics of Location Adverbials PP DP P' trois jours P DP avant D NP l' N examen Figure 1: trois jours avant l’examen Second, we have seen that the NPs in the proposed structure express either an extension (a duration or a spatial span), or a (temporal or spatial) location. The determinant phrases they make up will be called respectively ext-DPs and loc-DPs. Both possibilities occur for the DP-complement position while the DP-specifier position is restricted to ext-DPs. Actually, the SPEC and COMP elements are not confined to the DP category (in a restrictive sense). Besides the noun phrases usually occurring in SPEC, (e.g., trois kilomètres in trois kilomètres avant la station d’essence (three kilometers before the gas station)), adverbs may fulfill a similar role in the structure (e.g., bien in bien avant la station d’essence (well before the gas 17 station) or juste in juste après les vacances (just after the holidays)). The role of the ext-DP in trois jours avant l’examen (three days before the examination) is indeed similar to the role of the adverb in bien / peu avant l’examen (well / shortly before the examination). However, and for the sake of simplicity, we will focus this study on syntactic structures in which the SPEC and the COMP positions are represented by means of a DP (with a possibly empty D head). The complete structure of an adverbial can be more complex than the basic representation in Figure 1 because the NP complement of the DP- COMP can itself incorporate a locating PP (or other kind of adjunct) as in (deux jours / peu de temps) après la réunion (d’)avant les vacances ((two days / shortly) after the meeting before the holidays), whose structure is shown on Figure 2, or in (100 mètres / un peu) après la station (d’)avant le village ((100 meters / a bit) after the gas station before the village). Cahiers de Grammaire 26 (2001) Michel Aurnague, Myriam Bras, Laure Vieu & Nicholas Asher PP DP P' D NP P DP deux après N jours D NP la N' N' PP N P DP reunion (d')avant D NP les N vacances Figure 2: deux jours après la réunion (d’)avant les vacances 18 Beyond the uniform character that the general syntactic structure we propose suggests, two categories of adverbials can be distinguished which basically match the opposition between prepositions and adverbs. We have, on the one hand, real prepositions like depuis (since), avant (before), derrière (behind), etc. that usually combine with a lexicalized DP-COMP (depuis la réunion (since the meeting), derrière la mairie (behind the town hall)) but which also give rise to anaphoric or deictic uses when the DP is empty2. There is, on the other hand, a class of markers usually called adverbs that normally do not appear with a lexicalized DP-COMP (plus tard (later), plus loin (further), dedans (inside)) even though the presence of a contextually determined DP-COMP can be postulated. Indeed, several clues reveal the presence of a non lexicalized element, among which the existence of similar structures selecting a complement (e.g., pas plus tard qu’hier (only 2 Some prepositions (jusqu’à, dans, à, il y a, de) require a lexicalized DP-COMP. Cahiers de Grammaire 26 (2001) The Syntax and Semantics of Location Adverbials yesterday)) or their re-analysis/re-use as prepositions that is sometimes made in colloquial language (e.g., dedans la mairie (inside the town hall)). The characterization of adverbs and, in particular, the properties that distinguish them from prepositions constitute open questions that we will nevertheless not tackle here3. We would only like to stress that, beyond the fact that they require a lexicalized DP-COMP or not, real prepositions as well as adverbs can be analyzed by means of the syntactic structure previously introduced. These remarks on adverbials calling for prepositions or adverbs also show that, when an element (here the DP-COMP) of the syntactic structure is not lexicalized, the interpretation of the whole expression has to rely on other referential information. Indeed, an important property of locating adverbials is their dependence on or their independence from the preceding discourse (anaphora) or the context of utterance (deixis). The adverbials involved in narratives typically are dependent on the linguistic context, i.e., they are anaphoric — e.g., deux heures plus tard (two hours later), trois kilomètres plus loin (three kilometers further) — or deictic, although the latter case will be set aside in this study4. Of course, in addition to anaphoric ones, we will analyze locating adverbials which are context independent — e.g., le 23 mars 2002 (on March 23rd 2002), à Toulouse (at/in Toulouse). Further remarks have to be made concerning the syntactic structure of two kinds of complex adverbials. Adverbials like au coin de la rue (at the corner of the street), au milieu de la réunion (in the middle of the meeting) involve two locating nouns. According to descriptive studies on internal localization (Borillo 1992, Aurnague 1996), they are rather made up of a complex preposition (such as au coin de or au milieu de) combined with a simple DP-COMP (la rue, la réunion) than of the simple preposition à associated with a complex DP (le coin de la rue, le milieu de la réunion). For adverbials of the form jusqu’à / après Noël (till Christmas / till after Christmas) or jusque sur le toit (up onto the roof), and even though this kind of construction will not be studied as much as the simpler ones, it will be 19 assumed that a few prepositions (e.g., jusque, depuis) can take other PPs as complements (e.g., à Noël, après Noël, sur le toit)5. The final structure of such expressions can be even more complex as the complement can sometimes take a specifier, as in jusque bien après Noël (till long after Christmas). So, the syntax of these complex adverbials can be accounted for by adding a structure involving embedded PPs to the basic one seen above. 3 For analyses of French adverbs see (Gross 1990, Molinier & Lévrier 2000). 4 For French spatial deictic expressions, see (Kleiber 1992, Borillo 1993). 5 Another point of view consists in stating that, even if a combination of embedded PPs is diachronically or synchronically possible for such expressions, the final syntactic structure could be also grasped by a complex preposition (e.g., jusqu’à, jusqu’après, jusque bien après, jusque sur) simply associated with a DP-COMP, even though this lessens the compositional character of the analysis. Cahiers de Grammaire 26 (2001)