The Swadeshi Movement and Bengali Theatre- MINOT!CHAITERJEE Any consideration of the history of 19th- and early-20th-cenluryBengalthesedays almostinvariablytendstomakenationalismand/ormodernityitsnucleus.Theorists quarrelamongthemselvesoverthedefinitionofthetwoconcepts,oftendismissingthemas derivativediscoursesand trying to prove thattheyareactuallyrootedinthepre-colonial past. Whatever may be the areas of difference,anti-British nationalismappears 10 bea politicalandculturalprojectwhichwecannotignoreinframinganarrativeofpoliticalaction andreactioninBengalinthelatterhalfofthe19thcentury,definedmoreclearlyinthefirst fewdecadesofthe20thcentury,Aturningbacktothecolonialperiodisinsearchnotofa comprehensiveor 'correct' understandingofthepastperse,butofthe19th-centuryagen daswhichmaintainacontinuingholdoncontemporaryones.Thepast,then,notasaliving traditiononemustreconnectwith,oracripplinginheritancetobelaidaside,orevenasa definitestagetobetranscended, butasahiddenhistoryofstructuralanddiscursivedeter minationswhichstealthilydeflect,reappropriate.andevencontrolcontemporaryinitiative. Inthelasttwodecades, severalstudieshavepointedtodimensionsofnationalismhardly touchedupon earlier. The nature of the nationalbourgeoisie. subalternmovements, the recoveryof self, nationalisthistoriography, nationalistaesthetics,messianicmovements, thewomanquestion, films. theatre, art andliteraryhistoryhaveallcomeinforscrutiny. Subjectslikethesehavebeenexploredbecauseithasbeenincreasinglyfeltthatnationalism, itsemergenceanddevelopment,itscontemporarypresence,isamorecomplex,contradic tory.andshiftingphenomenonthanearlierthesessuggested.Dissatisfactionwithconcep tualinheritances,liberal andMarxist,whichmakecleardistinctionsbetween'reactionary' and'progressive'•andassignnationalism10oneortheothercategory,hasalsosuppliedthe motivation for these researches. There has also been the convictionthatany study of nationalismshould reckon with the decisiveandspecificlogicofthecolonialsilualion. Thesestudiesmark themselves offfromearlieronesbecausetheyattempttotheorizeme colonialcontextinwhichnationalismemerged,asmuchastheytheorizenationalismitself. Thepresentstudyhasasimilargoal,andselectsforinvestigationtheSwadeshi~oHmenl inBengal(whichopposedthepartitionoftheprovincein1905),andthe.interacnonofthe movementwiththecontemporarytheatre.Thisinvolves,Inevitably,layingdowninsome detailthepoliticalbackgroundofSwadeshi,togetherwithsomecommentsonthenatureof theContemporarypolitics. . ~fthe th:e ThecentralproblematicofcolonialisminIndiawastheresponse colonizedto confro~tthe~r dominantculturalcanon imposedbycolonialrule,forcingthecolonizedto ownidentity, Bengali playsof theperiod playedanextremelyimportantroleon this respect, evenastheyarticulatedanideologyofnationalliberation.TheBengalitheatregrew • lb· . . . d tb UnivenityofDelhi.editedfor ISISa chapter from the author's Ph.D.dissertallOnsubmlne to e PUblicationinSangeet Natak.- Ed. Stzng~~1Natd Nos. l33-134, 1999 34 MINOT! CHATIERJEE withasenseof(oftenfalse)historicity,andwasusedpurposivelyasaplatfonnforSwadeshi. Seriousattention washeregiventothenationas acultural project.As a matteroffact, between 1905and 1912,nomediumofart inBengalfailed to express eitheranopenora subterraneanfeelingofinjuredprideandanguishedprotest.Poetry,music,andtheatrewere theearliest.andmostintenselyaffected. • DefendingthepartitionofBengalin1905,theViceroy,LordMinto,wrote toLordMorley on5February 1906': It is thegrowingpowerof apopulationwith greatintellectual gifts andatalentformaking itself heard, apopulation which though is very far from representing the more manly characteristicsofthemanyracesofIndia.is notunlikely toinfluence public opinion athome most mischievously. Therefore from a political point of view alone. putting aside the administrativedifficulties of theold province, Ibelieve partition to have been necessary. Bengal wasalready movingtowards partition whenCurzon hadstarted hisso-called streamlining.TherewasareductionofelectedelementsintheCalcuttaCorporation.anda UniversitiesActwaspassedtoheightenbureaucraticcontrol.TheOfficialSecretsActwas passed tocurb freedom of thepress. Therewasrampant racialdiscrimination. drain of wealth,andrepeatedfaminesandepidemicswhichplaguedBengalthroughthe I890s. Theideaofpartitionwastoyed withfrom 1903bySirAndrewFrazer,andfinallyanew provinceofEasternBengalandAssamwascreatedcomprisingtheChittagong,Daccaand Rajashahidivisions, HillTippera, MaIdaandAssam.TheformalproclamationscameonI Septemberand 16October1905.Bengalwaspartitionedonthegroundsof"administrative convenience":itwouldrelieveexcessiveburdenontheBengalgovernment,expansionof Assamwouldgiveitsofficersawiderandmoreinterestingfieldtoworkin,andamaritime outletwouldbeprovidedtodevelopitsindustriesintea,oilandcoal.Butevidentlythedeep rooteddesignwasto'divideandrule'thepeopleofBengalandcurbtheemergingnational movement. Apartfrom this,therewaswidespread anti-Bengali feeling inBritish official circles. Indeed,AmalesTripathi says:"ThegenesisofthepartitionofBengalhadnothingto dowithCurzon'sdeterminationtocrushaseditiousCongress.It haditsoriginsintheanti Bengaliprejudiceamongthecivilians,growingtomonstrousproportionsinthelatterhalfof the 19thcentury'", ~~~erates intheCongress consisted of sub-groups _ loyalist aristocrats, cautious politicians ofIhe Mehta-Gokha!e group, and the Bengal group. Extremists in turn were dividedamong themselves. While theTagoregroupadvocated self-helpandautonomous developmentignoringBritishrule,othersfeltthatBritishrulewasincompatiblewithnational progressandwantedtoprepareforitsoverthrow,forcingtheBritishtoleavethecountry. The partitionofBengaltook theBengalmoderateswell beyond the limits ofold-sIyle peuuoning.SurendranathBanerjeetouredthewhole ofthecountrymakingspeechesforthe boycott ofManchestercloth and Liverpool salt. The moderates alsoparticipated, though hesitatingly, in thenational educational movement. Men like Krishnakumar Mitra and THESWADESHIMOVEMENTAND BE".GALITHEATRE J5 AmbikacharanMazumdarbecameverycloselyassociatedwiththemilitantvolunteerand Samitimovements,andothermoderateleadersgavesupportandadvicetostrikingworkers oftheEastIndianRailways.Storiesevencirculatedofsomeofthebiggestmoderateleaders notbeingaversetosecretlygivingmonetaryaidtothefirstgroupsofyoungterrorists.The history ofthe moderatesbetween 1905 and 1908reveals infactaratherdelicate balance betweenthe hopestheyharboured and thefrustrationtheymetwith. ExtremisminBengalwasaprotestagainsttheEnglish-educatedeliteleadership,andits methodofprayerandpetition.Self-relianceandconstructivework werethenewslogans. withnewSwadeshienterprisesandeducationasanintegralpartoftheagenda.Useofthe vernacular.traditionalcustoms,andinstitutionslikethemetaorfairweretobeencouraged. Meanwhile,TilakandLalaLajpatRaihadblazedanextremisttrailintrailinMaharashtraaod Punjab,andthiscreated asensationinCalcuttaintheearlymonthsof1905. Initially,theCongressavoidedtakingupthecauseofBengal.In1903,theMadrassession oftheCongresspassedaresolutionwhichdenouncedtheproposedpartition,butonlyhalf heartedly.Infact,themajorityofmembersontheSubjectsCommineeobjectedtotheresolu tiononthegrounds that the proposed partitiondidnotconstitute an"All-India"problem. TheywaivedtheirobjectiononlyonaccountofthepressureoftheBengalidelegates',Even inthe1904Bombaysession.thedesiretodiscusstheresolutionwasminimal'. About the power of the Bengali leadership within the Congress, and their persistent oppositiontoanydivisionofBengal,LordCurzonhadearlierwrittentoJohnBrodrick: Calcutta isthecentrefromwhichtheCongressparty ismanipulatedthroughoutthewholeof BengalandindeedthewholeofIndia.Itsbestwirepullersanditsmost frothyoratorsallreside there.They dominate public opinioninCaJcu1I3.theyaffect theHighCourt.they frighten the local Government, andthey aresometimes not withoutserious influence upon(be Government ofIndia.The wholeoftheiractivity isdirectedtocreateanagencysopowerfUl. thatthey may onedaybeable10forceaweakgovernment togive themwhat theydesire. Anymeasureinconsequence that woulddividetheBengalispeakingpopulation.that would permit independent centres of activity andinfluence to grow up. that....ould~ethrone CalcuttafromitsplaceasthecentreofsuccessfulintrigueorthatwouldweakentheInfluence of thelawyerclass who havetheentireorganisationintheirhandsis intenselyandbody resentedbythem,' Theanti-panitionmovementtooksometimetogathermomentum.ABengalinews~per. Sanjibani,gavethefirstcallto"Boycott"on22June1905,andTheBengaleeacceptedIton 12Angust1905.AlukewarmresolutionwasmovedatthehistoricTownHallmeetingof7 August1905:themnderatemottostillseemeddefence,notdefiance.SurendranathBanerjee, theMaharajaofKasimBazar ManindraChandraNandi, MaulaviHasibuddinAhmed:all , d ~ tookavowtotakeupSwadeshiandBoycott,andforcedtheCongresstoa nptanappropna Rabm~ath resolutioninitsCalcuttasessionin1906.Thesloganof'BandeMatararn,'and I ba h·'('M oldenBengal Iloveyou)rent Tragore"sAmarsonarBangia.ami•tomaybha0 S lYg . ~ai~ . . edfromthemovement TheIdeawas Aclear-cut(iferroneous)theoryofeconomicsemerg '- ·al thatI·fafilh·pwastobegi.ventom. dl.genous.industry,thenpractisingSwadeshi.wases.senll d, . . !hi all h ppen PerformmgartIstsan andonlyifforeigngoodswereboycottedcould sacto Y a . 36 MINOT! CHATTERJEE paintersenteredthepoliticalarenain1905,andthecall forself-reliancespilledoverintothe domainofan.encouragingartiststouseitasapoliticalweapon.Culturalautonomywas1\) complementeconomic self-sufficiency.Abanindranath Tagore's 'Bharat Mala', hisonly paintingwithanovertpoliticalmessage,wasproducedduringtheSwadeshiunrest.Inthe economicsphere,thefaminesof 1897and 1899had emphasizedthepovertyoftheIndian masses.DadabhaiNaoroji'sPovertyandUn-BritishRuleinJndia(1901),WilliamDigby's ProsperousBritish Jndia (1901), and R.C. Dun's The EconomicHistory of BritishJndia (1901)allprotestedagainstthedrainoflndia'swealthtoEngland,andtheimpoverishmentof lndia'speasants. Withtherise of the professional middle class in Bengal, aided by the educationaland economicpoliciesoftheBrilish.thepa/lisamaj(villagesociety)had virtuallybrokenup.A sectionoftheyouthhadleftthe villagesandcomeawayto urban areasinsearchofnew employments. BurduringtheSwadeshi movementitwasthe model of the villageasan economicunitthatguidedtheleadersinthemetropolistodeterminethefuturelineofaction. ThequestionaroseastowhetherSwadeshiwasamatterofsociety,andBoycottarnatterof politics.Thereweredifferencesofopinionamongboththemoderatesandextremists,aswell asamongintellectuals.RabindranathTagore, forexample. thoughtthatitwasunfairto impose Boycott on the poorestof the poor, who would not be able to affondindigenous substitutes.Therewasagreatdealofactivityinthefieldofindigenous'national'education. whichpre-dalesthecalltoSwadeshibyseveralyears.Vivekananda,whohadpassedaway in1902.wasoneofitsardentadvocates:'Theidealthereforeisthatwemusthavethewhole educationofourcountry,spiritualandsecular,inourhands.anditmustbeonnationallines. through national methods as far as practical..•.Vivekananda's follower Sister Nivedita, Rabindranath Tagore,Satishchandra Mukhopadhyay,AcharyaPrafulla ChandraRay,and RamendrasundarTrivediwereamongotherprominentworkersinthisfield.Rabindranath had already founded the Brahma Vidyalaya and Santiniketan in 190I. Satishchandra MUkhopadhyay didpioneering work with the Dawn Society through its chronicleDawn. Meanwhile,theCarlyleCircularwasissuedon22October1905tocurbstudentprotest;soon after,itwasdecidedtoboycottalluniversityeducation.ABengal NationalCollege(wbich became the nucleusof thefutureJadavpur University) and school were setupin 1906to provideeducationinscienceandtechnology.Technicalinstitutes were setupto provide vocationaltrainingforemployment.Mills,banks,andhandicraftboards werefonned".Pref erencewasshownforhandloom,andthechorkhawasbothpracticallyused and symboli callypromoted.ThiswasindeedthefirstseriousattemptbyIndianstotaketheireconorrnc destinyintheirownhands. TheSwadeshiideawastoraisethepoliticalconsciousnessofthe pallisandinspirethe rural folktowork fordevelopment.The propagationwasthroughlecturesaswellaslarras andsongs,whIchweremoreeffectivewiththemasses. Ashwini KumarDuttandCharan Kabi Mukundadas were two well-known personalities'involved in this programme.The former"TOtetozamindarstostopthesaleofforeigngoodsintheirbazars(thoughnotman.y responses were forthcoming). However,although Swadeshi had a specifically econornts ~spect.ItalsocontainedasentimentassociatedwithmanyotherphasesofIndiannational· ISmasobservedbyhistorianSumitSarkar.Indigenousgoods wereto bepreferredbycon- THE SWADESHI MOVEMENT AND BENGALITHEATRE 37 sumerseveniftheyweremoreexpensivethan- andinferiorto- theirimportedsubsti tutes.anditwasthe patriotic duty of menwithcapital10 pioneersuchindustries, even thoughprofitsmightinitiallybeminimalornon-existent.Swadeshi,thus.isatermofnar rowerscope than indigenousenterprise,"muchofwhichcould,andoftendid,followthe moreprofitablefranklycompradorlines"!",ItalsoseemsthaISwadeshiandBoycottmeant variousthingstovariouspeopleinthenationalistleadership.ToSurendranathBanerjeethe onlyaimofBoycottwastocalltheattentionoftheBritishpublictoBengal'sgrievanceabout the partition;when the decision was reversed, the Boycott was to cease. ForGokhale. Boycottwasapoliticalweapon,tobeusedwiththedefinitepurposeofindustrialregenera tion.ForLal,Bal.Pal- themilitanttrio- Boycotthaddoubleimplications:Materially.itwas toputeconomicpressure onManchester, whichwouldproduceachain reactiononthe Indiangovernment;fromaspiritualpointofview,itmeant thedispellingofthemayaof Britishpower,andanecessarysacrificeforSwaraj.Tilakcalledit."theYogaofBahishkar",a ritualofrejection;itwasalsoatraininginself-help,determinationandsacrifice.ToAurobindo. itwasnotmerelyamovementforautonomyandwealth,butareturntofaithinIndia'sroleas worldsaviour.Thedayofpartition,16October1905,wasobservedasRakhiBandbandayat thesuggestionofRabindranathTagore.ThousandsofpeoplewalkedbarefoottotheGanga andtookadip.Therewasevenanappeal forarandhanrnocooking'inhouseholds)asa signofmourning. PerhapsnoaspectofnationalisminBengalintheearly1900shasreceivedmoreattention than therevoJutionaryterrorismgeneratedbyit!'. Thoughunsurpassableinitsromantic appeal.itis adifficultperiodtoreconstructintheabsenceoffirst-handsources.Private papershavelargelynotsurvived,andrecords- thelittlethatareavailable- aredistorted. ItwouldseemthatBengalwastiredoftheCongress'smendicantwaysandsoughtrevolu tionaryterrorism asapanacea.Terroristactivitieswereprimarilyledbytwogroups,the AnushilanSamiti (founded in 1902)andYugantar(1906).Thefirstpolitical murderwas plannedbyKhudiramBoseandPrafuUaChakiin1902- anattemptonthelifeofanEnglish DistrictMagistrate,Kingsford.(ThebombactuallykilledtwoEnglishwomen.andnotthe magistrate.)Manyyoungsterswhowereimpatienttooktoterroristmethodssubsequently. ExtremisminIndianpoliticsmanifestedamarkedresemblancetowhatToynheewouldcall "archaism".Itwasaresponsetothechallengeofahaphazardandsuperficialv.'eslemizati?" ofIndianlife,thoughtandpolitics.AccordingtoAmalesTripalhi,themovementofrests lancecouldbediscussedonthreeplanes.Spiritually,itcounteredathreattothetraditional Hindureligion,ethics,andsocialvaluesposedbyChristianilyandUlilitariani,m,a,wellas Brahmoism which was stronglyinfluenced byboth.Culturally,itresistedamechanistic, materialistic andindividualisticcivilizationwhichseemedtobedestroyingordlstortmgthe me~er ~ indigenoustissuesofsocialgrowth.Politically,itwuhstoodaslow of'Indian iden tityiothevastBritishempire.AreboundfromtherrJmesisoftheWest.Ithowe,:eroscillated 10anotherextreme:mimesisofancientIndia",Bornofapsychologyoffear.II inculcated aggressiveness in tone and temper.It bred an equally unhealthyorthodoxy amongthe largelyHindumiddleclassesofBengal. . cl~arly Bengaliplaysduringthisperiodhadaspiritofromanticismandadventure influ encedby revolutionary terrorism. Much ofthe literatureofthetimewasinspiredbythe 38 MtSOTtCHATTERJEE writingsofBankimChandraChattopadhyaya,particularlyhis novelXnandamatnwithits sloganof 'BandeMataram' fortheSantan Sampradaya.Thisnovel was takenupbythe youngrevolutionarytheoristAurobindoGhoshandtreatedasapoliticaltract,withBankim himselfbeinghailedastheseerofthenationalistmovement. In aseriesofelevenarticles titled'NewLampsforOld',AurobindostronglycriticizedthemendicancyoftheCongress. TogetherwithotherleaderslikeAshwiniKumar Duttand Barin Ghosh,hewasseriously thinkingintermsofanarmeduprising.Aurobindo'sBhawaniMandir,apamphletpublished in1905,wasaboutShaktiasacultforrevolutionaryterrorism,ForAurobindo,themeansto theendofpoliticalemancipationwasturningitintoanendinitself". Extremist leaders(allupper-caste Hindus) used religion to mobilize supportfortheir cause,andthuspatriotismlookonthecolourofHindu revivalism, Theidentificationof patriotismwithreligionfoundexpressioninthepujaofDurga or Kali asMotherland-a symbolismgoingbacktoBankimChandra.Tilak'svisittoBengalinJune 1906tocelebrate theShivajifestival,onwhichoccasionhecompared'BandeMataram'toShivaji'sworshipo! thegoddessBhawani(KaliinBengal),wasfurtherencouragementtotherevolutionaries.In fact,bythistime, Shivajihad become established as an icon of Indian resistanceinthe BengaliHindu mind.Theprocess had begun with Rameshchandra Dutt's Maharasntra Jib.n Prabha/(1878),andcontinued withTilak's Shivaji festivals (inMaharasbtra),tobe emulatedbyTagore'sShivajiUtsav(1904).Notsurprisingly,Shivajiwasaveneratedfigure inmanyplaysofthetime. VowsontheGilaweretakenoninitiationintorevolutionarypolitics,tantricvowswere alsonotunknownamongthemilitants.SisterNiveditagaveastartlingreinterpretationofthe Goddessasincarnatedinthesword.BankimChandra,inKrishnaCharitra, presentedKrishna asaherowhowouldredeemtheworld.TilakwroteacommentaryontheGila,andAurobindo contributedtheintroductorychaptertoit.LajpatRajcompiledanUrdu 'biography'ofKrishna, andAshwiniKumarDUllexpatiatedonbhaktiyoga.EvenBrahmabandhahDpadhyaya.who wasaRomanCatholicforabriefperiodinhislife,wroteSrikrishnatattva;andBipinChandra Pal,arationalistBrahmo,fellundertheneo-VaishnavitespellofBijoyKrishnaGoswamito proclaimSriKrishnatobe"thesoulofIndia".Dharmarajyawasequatedwithswarajya,and terrorism wasunderstoodasdharmayuddha.Butwhileextremism waspartlyindebted10 Bankim,VivekanandaandDayanandforitsideology,itwasnotforitspoliticalraisondtue TheextremistpurposewasprimarilytoopposethemoderateswhohadacceptedtheBritisb 'mission'.inIndiaatitsfacevalueandhadbecomecomplacentandtrusting, . :erronsm,however,peteredoutduetolackofpopularsupport,andinternaldifferencesm tactics.Thegovernmentresortedtosevererepression.Itbannedpublicmeetings.censored thepress,and engaged insavagepersecutions. Themorecoverttherevolutionariesbe carne,theharderthegovernmentcarnedownonthem.Theterroristsdidnotwintheirbowe, buttheydidposeachallengetotheircolonialrulers.Thereforeitneeds tohestatedthatlhe commonbeliefthatIndia'sfreedommovementwasnon-violentisill-founded. . TheearlyphaseofSwadeshihadthesupportofmostMuslims,SomeMuslinncommuni, lies hope~forgainsfr?mSwadeshipolicies,forexampletheweaverswhostood10benefit fromarejectionofBritishcloth;indeed,thesingersofBakarganjhadcomposedsongson thissubject.JUSIbeforethepartition,inSeptember 1905,lenthousandHindusandMusliJllS THESWADESHI MOVEMENT ANDBENGALITHEATRE 39 demonstratedtheir unity at Rajabazar. In thatcongregation, AbdulRasool.aSwadeshi enthusiast,declaredthattherewasonlyonemotherland- Bangladesh".MohammadYusuf, ChairmanoftheSwadeshiSabha,proposedaMilanMandirforHindusandMuslimsonthe dayofthepartition.ButtheBritishhadalsobeenable10enticesomeMuslimleaderswiththe spoilsofadivide.In 1905, theNawabofDaccatogetherwithsomeotherMuslimleaders activelysupportedthepartition.TheAghaKhansenlaproposaltoLordMintoforseparate electoratesforMuslims.whichwasaccepted.TheDaccaMuslimleaguewasformedinthe sameyear(1905).ItwasalsotheyearoftheestablishmentoftheHinduMahasabha.which remainedactiveup101908. Thecorrespondence between class and religious affiliationinBengal laybehindthe emergenceofcommunalpoliticsinthisera- anditssuccess.Bengalhad3predominantly Hindulandowningclassand a predominantlyMuslimtenantry.Inevitably,thedominant upper-casteHindubhadralok.politicallyorganizedundertheCongress,soughttopreserve theprivilegesofthezamindariandtheintermediaterentierinterests,whiletheMuslimlead ersofEastBengal,relyingonthesupportoftheMuslimpraja,soughttoupholdtherights ofraiyatsandfoundthemselvesinoppositiontotheCongress.Therewasalsotheattrac tionofaseparateconstituencyandalargershareofpower.ThenewMuslimleadershipof EaSIBengalwasthusconvincedofitsneedforanindependentpoliticalorganization,which inevitablytookananti-Hindustance. ThiscouldhappenonlybecausetheSwadeshimovementwasessentiallyanupper-caste Hindu bhadralok affair, which by its ideology and practices had alienated both the Muslimmassesandthegentry.Revivalismservedasastimulusforradicalismanddeepened Muslimalienation.InallspheresoftheSwadeshienterprise.religionwac;usedasamotivar ing factor. This could only bring about a breach in Hindu-Muslim relations. Theriots in 1906 _ 7proved that the callto SwadeshiandBoycottcouldnotovercome thisdeepening divide. • Thepolitical and social concernsofthe Swadeshimovementwereaptlyre/Jectedinthe theatreoftheperiod.Indeed,thetheatrewasharnessedforpoliticalendsduringthisera.The plays had no apparently subversive ideology_ thecensorshiplawssaw10.that - bUI le~ders nationalismandpatriotismwerepropagatedinthegarbofotherthemes..Ther,oilucal chanelled the issues of the day intodramaticliterature.Theplaywrights.gavepolitical interpretationstohistoryandmyth.TheswadeshiJatrabecameagreatforceInruralBenga.l, motivating peopleto adoptthewayofSwadeshi.NalionalistconsciousnessinfusedthiS traditionalform,makingitavehicleofpoliticalpropaganda. . TheatresinCalcuttabecamevenuesofpublicmeetingsforpoliticalpurposes.Atasenes ofmeetingsintheStarTheatreon3August,attheAlbertHallon5Augus/,andattheGrand gov~mme~t Theatreon 15August 1905,B.C.PalurgedtheextensionofBoycotttotitles, ~o servicesandfunctions.TwohundredstudentsintheStarTheatreresponded Palscall 0 (The passive resistance • ,16 SIgn a pledge not to lake employment under the govemme." . . ., ' i- programmeformulatedbyB.C.PalandAurobindoGhoshanllclpated.rnfact,Gandhispoill. . ) Thi 'asallenuncIatedinpublic calprogrammeexcept forthedogmaofnon~\'JOlence . JSW 40 MINOTt CHAITERJEE theatres:thestagewasnowapoliticalspace. Devastation,economicdrain.Swadeshi,Boycott,wereheardanddiscussedeverywhere _ notonlyinformal treatisesand newspaperarticlesbutalso in songs, playsandJanas. Muchwaswritteninfavourofthecharkha,whichwould(supposedly)provideemployment toruralwomen,andwouldalsoendtheembarrassmentofSwadeshihandloomsdepending onLancashireimportsforyamoffinercounts.Acontemporaryplay,AmritalalBasu'sShabash Bangali(1905),endswithvillagewomengoingbacktothecharkha. In 1905the StarTheatreproduced D.L,Roy's Rana Pratap.On the day oftheactual partition.thetheatreobservedmourning.AnadvertisementinAmritaBazarPatrikasaid: 'MourningatStar!IPartitionofBengalINoAmusementattheStarTheatreIOnWednesday 6SeptemberI Amritalal BoseI Manager", A seriesofhistorical playsfollowed thean nouncement.Thiswasaperiodofvigorouspatrioticpoetryandsong.andinspiredsomeof thewell-knownsongsofRabindranathTagore,D.L.Roy,andMukundadas".Theimageof 1905whichhassurvivedinthecollectivememoryofBengalisinfactinextricablyboundup withSwadeshisongs", Alargenumberofpatrioticplayshadalreadybeenwrittenduringthe 1860sand 1870" andweretheimmediatecauseforthepassageofLytton's DramaticPerfonnancesActin 1876.Then,forabout twentyyears, thepoliticalinterestwas swampedalmostentirelyby religiousandotherthemes.Animportantdramatistofthetime,GirishChandraGhosh(1877· 1912),forexample,concentratedonPuraniethemesorsentimentaldomesticdrama. (Itmay beunfairtocharacterizeGirish'splays assuch,becauseGirishhas alsobeen interpretedas anintelligentuserofallegory.)TheSwadeshimovementbroughtaboutasuddenswingi~ fashionbacktohistoricalplaysofpatriotic content.InJanuary 1906,nolessthatfivesuch playswerestagedattheStarandMinerva.thetwoleadingtheatresofCalcutta:Kshirodeprasad Vidyavinode'sPadmini,D.L.Roy's Pratapsingha,AmritalalBasu'sShabashBangali.Girish Ghosh'sSiroj-ud-doula,and HaranathBose'sJagaran. InIhefirstphaseofhiscareer,GirishGhoshwroteplaysbasedon mythicordevotional lore,likeRabanaBadh(1881)andChaitanyaLee/a(1884).Hewaslateranardentfollowerof Sri Ramakrishna and Vivekananda.None couldsurpasshimin readingthe directionsthaI popularsentimentwould take.Thuswhen the Swadeshi upsurgehit thestage,hechoseto write playsonsome oftheheroesof the land.Judgingfrom these,his ideal nationwould seem tobeaunitedHindurashlra,asindeeddeclaredintheplayChhatropatiShivaji.The AmrilaBazarPatrikaon 18March 1908reportedthatChhatrapatiShivajibyGirishGhoSh was staged at the Kohinoor Theatre on 15 March, "in the company ofSreejukta Bepin Chandra Palwhohadkindlyacceptedtheinvitationtogracetheoccasion".Thiswastheaue's wayofstrikinganalliancewiththepoliticalleadersofthetime. . UtpalDutt,notedplaywrightandactor,howeverstronglyfeltthatGirishemployedreli giousandotherthemes tocritiquemiddle-classmorality>,InSiraj-ud-doula,Girishi~ catchesIndiansocietyatthecrossroads,witharuthlessamoralcliqueofmerchantswrcsung pow:erfromafe.udalchiefthroughtreacheryanddeceit,whilehissubjectswatchhelplessly. KanmCh~chaIIISiraj-ud-doutaisthevoiceofthesetwosystemsinconflict_ aparallel figuretoS""J.andalmosthisalterego. THE SWADESHI MOVEMENTAND BENGALITHEATRE 41 D.L. Roy'splays,on theotherhand.displayed awillbothtopreserveandreconstruct tradition.Histhemeswere historical.RanaPratapsingha(I905),forexample,demonstrates how,inordertoregenerateitself.religionwouldhavetodropitsritualismandnarrowout look.TheStarTheatrebeganshowingtheplayon22July 1905.Thesensationwassogreat that on the first night four hundred people returned disappointed for want of tickets" Mewar Patan also reinforces this ideology, but perhaps pushes the agenda too far for generalacceptance,InthisplayaMuslimcharacter,MobabatKhan,makesananalysisofthe 'truenature'ofthe Hindus,whenhesays:"Somuchhatred!Nowonderthisracehasalways beensubjectedtoIslam.ThisistheirsupposedlyliheralSanatanDharma?Muslimsatleast canboastofacceptingallnon-Muslims[intotheirfold].ButHinduism?Anon-Hinducan neverbecomeaHinduevenafternever-endingpenance...Hindudharma. Father! Such hatred,suchself-pride,suchangertowardsMuslims...Youtalkofrepentance,Father.Yes, Iwilldopenance.but notfor becomingaMuslim - because onedayIwasaHinduand that'swbatI'repent.'?'. Mewar Patan tells ofthe downfall notonly of Mewar butof Hindus, and of loss of 'national'character.InDurgadas(1905),themightoftheMarathasandtheirhorsemanship ispraised.andthe hopeisexpressedthattheywouldjointheRajputsagainsttheMughals; ifunited,theywouldbeaformidableforcetoreckonwith.Shahjahan(1909)shedslighton theinabilityofthe RajputprincestouniteagainsttheMughals;eveniftheyweresuccessful, theplay suggests, there wouldhe a struggle for supremacyamong theRajput chieftains themselves. D.L. Roy'scharacterswere taken fromepicloreaswell,likeRamaintheplay Seeta(1902)or AhalyainPashani(1900);buteventhesebecamerealpeople,with human facesandcontemporaryproblems. Padmini(1903),Nandakunwr(\9<»),PalashirPrayashchilla(1901),Bang"Prasapaditya (1906) andA/amgir(l92I).allwrittenbyKshirodeprasadVidyavinode,relatedreligionto nationalisminonewayorother.Interestingly,hewroteplaysontwoofGirishGhosh'searlier subjects_ Siraj-ud-doulaandMirKasim_ characterswhohadgainedmythicalpropor tionsinpopularconsciousness. Someoftheseplaysafforddualinterpretations.Playsglorifyinga'Hindu' pastcanalso be read asdocuments onpatriotismofa secular kind.with Hindu-Muslimunity at the forefront.Indeedthe partitionofBengalsawdichotomousstreamsofthinking.Ontheone hand,themilitancywasstridentlyHinduincharacter;ontheother,Muslimswerealargepart ofthepopulation. andassimilatingthemintothemainstreamwasacompulSion.Inthe politicalarena.thetwocommunitieswereoftenopenlyantagonistic.Yetsecularlanguage wasusedwhenGirishGhoshhadSirajdeclare: motherl~ ShouldtherebeablesseddaywhenHindusandMuslimsunitefOTmecauseofthe iredman' and feeltheir giveuptheirselfishinterestsand shoulderthecommonesploi manscause, .Insullasthei.r persona.lhum_ih.ati.on,only .t.n.e_ncan.U..K_' r".."..-.I·b.......-.rsbetamed' OJelseunfortu- nateM~r Bengalis bound10beinchains!). ~ntiments:~ Similarly, while the play ChhaJrapatiShivajiclearly expressed Hindu dlle~a promoted the cultofthe MotherGoddess,therewasevidentlya 10 dealing . Muslimcharacters.Inanalmostforcedbidforcommunalharmony,ShivajitellstheMuslims 41 MINOTt CHAITERJEE thattheyarefreeinanindependentMaharashtra:"Hewholovesfreedomdoesnotdiscrimi natebetweenaHinduandaMuslim.Thediscriminationisintheheartsofcowards.Itisthey whoperpetuateit."24HetellsMuslimswhowanttojoinhisarmy: . .. youtooareentitledtofreedom. You willtakeupanTIS forfreedom,thereis nodoubt aboutit.andbrightenthefareofthemotherland.Therewillbenodiscriminationagainstyou onthebasis ofrace orreligion", Oneshouldbewaryofreadingtheseplaysashistorical plays,becausetheconcernofthe playwrightswasnothistoricity;rather.itwasusinghistorytopromotenationalism.Inthis elTort GirishGhosh. withhis fairly goodsense ofhistory,was very successful inhislater phase.Hemouldedthe Bengalistageonnationalist linesand indeed tried totumitintoan institutionfor nation-building.When ChhatrapatiShivajiwas stagedon9June 1905,The Bengaleeannouncedon behalfofMinervaTheatre: Webegtodraw theattentionofthe readerto theannouncementmadeelsewherethatMessrs TilakandKhaparde willattend theperformanceatthe MinervaTheatrethis evening. .. In honourof the venerable Mobarashtra Patrons Srijut BalagangadharTilak of Poona, Sri KrishanKhapardeofAmraoti,[and]Dr.MunjeofNagpore...otherdistinguishedguestsand renownedvisitorshavekindlyconsentedtograceourpavillion with theirpresence. During theperformanceofShivajithe'BandeMataram'sloganwas raised;GirishGhosh playingaroleintheplaykneltdowninrespectfulacknowledgement,whilethewholehouse stoodupinsilence.Tilaksatthroughtheentireplayandcongratulatedthedramatistandlbe theatreforputtingupsuch apatrioticplay." D.L. Roy's plays Rana Pratapsingha, Durgadas, Noorjehan,and Shahjahan alldeal withHindu-Muslimunity. InRonaPratapasingha,MehmnissaasksherfatherAkbarifGod isone;andifthatisso,whyissomuchbloodspilledinHisname.SheandIra.Pratapsinghas daughter.are bosomfriends,though their fathers are enemies. In Durgadas, themi~tar)' commanderofAurangzeb'sforce.DilerKhan,trieshisutmosttoforgecommunalharmony. Hesays: \\llycan'tithappen...both have livedunderthesameskyandbreathed thesameair.Are ~cir souls not one even nowj Letthem(oronce forgettheirreligious differences.raci.a.l differences,and withfoldedhandsbowto thegreenandprosperouslandthatis India.27 ~ Noorjehan,a visibly worried Shahjahan asks Karnasingha ofMewar whether h~s preciousTajMahalwouldbepreservedafterhisdeath.Karnasinghavaliantlyreplies:"!llS truethatHindushavefallen,butnotsolow,0 Emperor.Aslongasthereissomeonetolight aI~~.inthe Mewardynasty,therewill be nodearthofoiltolightalampin theMasjid':' well...D.L.Roymade asenousefforttobringawarenesstothepeople.to overcomereli giousdifferences,andunitethemforaCommoncause.Healsotriedtobringoutthehuman ismofreligion,and madedeftuseofhislorytodrivehispointshome.Chandragupta(1911) reflected D.L. Roy's pride in being an Indian. When the Indian king Porus is asked by Alexanderhowhewouldliketobetreated,hereplieswithgreataplomb:"Asonekingtreats