AFRICAN IDENTITY: THE STUDY OF ZAKES MDA’S THE MADONNA OF EXCELSIOR AND BESSIE HEAD’S MARU by THABO WIDLEY MAHASHA DISSERTATION Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in ENGLISH STUDIES in the FACULTY OF HUMANITIES (School of Languages and Communication Studies) at the UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO SUPERVISOR: Dr L. D. Mkuti CO-SUPERVISOR: Dr M. J. Mogoboya 2014 DEDICATION This study is dedicated to my parents, Ngwako (Sebolayaphuti) and Mamaropeng Mahasha, whose loving-kindness ushered and sustained me over the years. You have, by example, taught me to soil my hands and toil to the bone for the things I cherish and aspire to achieve. ii DECLARATION I declare that the dissertation, AFRICAN IDENTITY: THE STUDY OF ZAKES MDA’S THE MADONNA OF EXCELSIOR AND BESSIE HEAD’S MARU hereby submitted to the University of Limpopo, for the degree of Master of Arts in English Studies has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other university; that it is my work in design and in execution, and that all material contained herein has been duly acknowledged. ……………………………………………… …………………………… Surname, Initials (title) Date iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude, first, to God for granting me health, wisdom and strength to complete this dissertation. This study would not have been possible without the support and contribution of the following people:  My supervisor, Dr L. Mkuti, for being a source of inspiration and intrinsic motivation. Your academic prowess and insight inspired and equipped me with indelible skills and knowledge. I will always uphold your sage advice and relentless optimism.  My co-supervisor, Dr M.J Mogoboya, for his editorial expertise, mentoring skills and patience. I am forever indebted to your steadfast support and encouragement which propelled me to the completion of this study. I deeply appreciate every recommendation you made to improve my writing, which ultimately made me a better person.  The library staff for their remarkable stewardship and friendliness. My heartfelt gratitude goes particularly to Mr. Lucas Seabi, for being generous with time and study materials. I have found a brother in you.  My cousin, Annah Mailula, and her husband, Ezekiel, for their encouragement and support through the years of my graduate studies. You made me realise my dream.  My Computer Guru, Ben Shingwenyana, for his technical assistance and prompt solutions. With you on my side, I focused on my studies and never had to worry about viruses and software installations.  My pastor, Benny Maake, for having confidence in me and always thinking of me as a man equal to the task. Your prayers are highly appreciated.  Most importantly, I gracefully cherish the unconditional love and support of my brothers and sisters: Linneth, Phillip, Gladys, Miriam and Emmanuel Mahasha. I learnt a lot from you guys. You are a bedrock on which this study is founded.  My dear children, Lethabo and Karabo, for their sense of humour. The laughter you induced from me during stressful moments always lightened the burden of study. iv  Finally, though my name appears on the cover page of this dissertation, my wife, Veronicca, deserves equal credit. You did everything humanly possible to see me to the completion of this study. Thanks for being an anchor, a helper and a best friend. v ABSTRACT This study discusses African identity as portrayed in Zakes Mda’s The Madonna of Excelsior (2002) and Bessie Head’s Maru (1971). It explores identity and its sub- components within the South African context as asserted in these novels. Mda employs a retrospective communal voice that blends historical accounts with fiction in order to subvert and satirise apartheid nationalism. Head, on the other hand, constructs a positive image of feminine identity in the world characterised by tribalism, patriarchal system and stereotypical subjugation of women. She dismantles established racial and ethnic prejudice against minority groups and the underprivileged. The study applies a trilogy of theoretical framework to analyse and interpret selected data: Discourse Analysis, Text Analysis and Afrocentricity. It further examines a fluidity of identities in both social and political spheres and demonstrates how suppression of these identities affects individuals and nation states. It reveals that, as a microcosm of Africa, South Africa reflects atrocious injustices of the past, carried out in the form of colonisation and apartheid, bringing about a different kind of identity of the African people. These two novels take us back to the past so that we can understand the present and subsequently build Africa’s identity of the future. KEY CONCEPTS Afrocentricity; Identity; Discrimination; Miscegenation; Otherness; Hybridity; Animalistic Dehumanisation. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Conceptualising Identity: Definitions and Perspectives 2 1.3. Background to the Study 8 1.4. Research Problem 11 1.5. Purpose of the Study 12 1.5.1. Aim of the Study 12 1.5.2. Objectives of the Study 12 1.6. Theoretical Framework 13 1.6.1. Discourse Analysis Theory 13 1.6.2. Text Analysis Theory 17 1.6.3. Afrocentricity Approach 19 1.7. Significance of the Study 22 1.8. Conclusion 23 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Introduction 25 2.2. Social and Political Identity 25 2.3. Language Identity in African Literature 27 2.4. Linguistic Imperialism 37 2.5. South African National Identity 40 2.6. Cultural Hybridity in Postcolonial Discourse 45 2.7. Cultural Identity 49 2.8. Conclusion 52 vii CHAPTER THREE: MISCEGENATION AND RACIAL IDENTITY IN MDA’S THE MADONNA OF EXCELSIOR 3.1. Introduction 53 3.2. Definition of Miscegenation 53 3.3. A Brief Background of Miscegenation 54 3.4. Miscegenation in South Africa 55 3.5. The Plight of the Sensual Madonnas 56 3.6. Racial Dehumanisation and Vengeance 63 3.7. Towards a New South African Political Identity 65 3.8. Identity Crisis 73 3.9. Conclusion 79 CHAPTER FOUR: SOCIAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY IN HEAD’S MARU 4.1. Introduction 80 4.2. A Note on Terminology 80 4.3. Who are the Bushmen? 81 4.4. Racial Discrimination and Social Identity 82 4.5. Head’s Self-reflection 88 4.6. Margaret as a Tool and a Symbol of Liberation 92 4.7. The Theory of Otherness 97 4.8. The Effects of Racial Stereotypes on Marginalised Groups 99 4.9. Conclusion 103 CHAPTER FIVE: DEPICTION OF HYPOCRITICAL AFRIKANER’S RELIGIOUS IDENTITY IN THE MADONNA OF EXCELSIOR (2002) AND MARU (1971) 5. Introduction 104 6. Afrikaner Theology 105 viii 7. Racism Reporting 112 7.1. Hypocrisy of the Christian Missionaries in Africa 115 7.2. Conclusion 120 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1. Introduction 121 6.2. A final note on social, political and language identity 122 6.3. Challenges and social threats in The Madonna of Excelsior 125 6.4. The effect of characterisation in Maru 127 6.5. Recommendations 129 6.6. Conclusion 131 REFERENCES 133 ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1.1. Introduction Africa is a continent of hybrid identity. The complex history of individual ethnic groups and nation states, the discrepancies and similarities among their experiences, the cultural and religious overlaps, make Africa a continent of multiple diversity. The people who constitute African nations have a profound individual and collective history. They were equally disintegrated and downtrodden by colonial systems which marred their identity and eroded their self-worth. The starting point for discussion of African identity in this study is, therefore, underpinned by pluralism, ubuntu, pan-African culture and validation of African aesthetic values which characterise the African people. This chapter lays a foundation on which this study is grounded. It explores African identity from variety of literary theories. The study applies a trilogy of theoretical framework: Discourse Analysis, Text Analysis and Afrocentricity in order to unravel aspects of identity as portrayed in the primary sources, Zakes Mda’s The Madonna of Excelsior (2002) and Bessie Head’s Maru (1971). These authors epitomise the discourse of African identity in both South Africa and Botswana. Mda has chosen two political eras in South Africa, during apartheid and after it, while Head portrays a subversive consciousness that undercuts women’s subjugation by a patriarchal system in Botswana. However, the study is not confined to these writers alone, a variety of critical works by prominent writers such as Asante (2009), Ngugi (1993) and Homi Bhabha (1994), among others, is applied. Colonisation, apartheid and imperialism viewed African identity in a negative light while elevating Eurocentric ideas. This caused social tension and jeopardised Africa’s diverse identity. The study digs deeper into the past and the present, excavating social ills planted by the colonial dispensation. It aims to make a mark in contributing towards a creation of a future which Africans will be proud to identify with. It sustains the belief that 1