The Slaves Who Defeated Napoléon AtlAntic crossings rafe Blaufarb, series Editor thE slAvEs Who DEfEAtED nApoléon toussaint louverture and the haitian War of independence, 1801–1804 philippe r. girard thE UnivErsity of AlABAmA prEss Tuscaloosa copyright © 2011 the University of Alabama press tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487- 0380 All rights reserved manufactured in the United states of America typeface: Bembo ∞ the paper on which this book is printed meets the minimum requirements of Ameri- can national standard for information sciences—permanence of paper for printed li- brary materials, Ansi Z39.48- 1984. cover: Karl girardet, “st. Domingue: prise de la ravine aux couleuvres.” in pierre lanfrey, The History of Napoleon the First. london, new york: macmillan and co., vol. 2, part 1, opp. p. 146. library of congress cataloging-in-publication Data girard, philippe r. the slaves who defeated napoleon : toussaint louverture and the haitian War of independence, 1801–1804 / philippe r. girard. p. cm. — (Atlantic crossings) includes bibliographical references and index. isBn 978-0-8173-1732-4 (cloth : alk. paper) — isBn 978-0-8173-8540-8 (electronic) 1. haiti—history—revolution, 1791–1804. 2. haiti—history—revolution, 1791–1804—sources. 3. haiti—history—revolution, 1791–1804—personal narratives. 4. toussaint louverture, 1743–1803. 5. generals—haiti— Biography. 6. revolutionaries—haiti—Biography. 7. statesmen—haiti— Biography. 8. napoleon i, Emperor of the french, 1769–1821. i. title. f1923.g57 2011 972.94′03—dc23 2011019639 Contents list of illustrations vii Acknowledgments ix introduction 1 1. the Black napoléon: louverture and the 1801 constitution 11 2. the White toussaint: Bonaparte’s Decision to invade saint- Domingue 33 3. Eve of a Battle: planning the leclerc Expedition 50 4. King of the tropics: the Atlantic crossing and the moyse Uprising 67 5. parley: the french landing 86 6. supply and Demand: leclerc’s Diplomacy with the United states, cuba, and Jamaica 101 7. Ash and iron: the spring campaign 113 8. lull: love, loot, labor, and louverture’s Exile 139 9. mal de siam: the yellow fever Epidemic 159 10. faux pas: the maroon Uprising 182 11. revolt: the Defection of the colonial Army 203 12. reprieve: rochambeau and the french counteroffensive 224 13. Unity is strength: Dessalines and the Unification of the rebel Army 248 14. Echoes of saint- Domingue: louverture’s captivity and the louisiana purchase 267 vi / contents 15. new Enemy, new partner: the British navy at War 282 16. sodom and gomorrah: life in Besieged french towns 291 17. resolution: the rebel victory 302 18. liberty and Death: haitian independence 313 19. the long Way home: french refugees and the fall of santo Domingo 329 conclusion 343 notes 349 glossary of french and Kreyol terms 429 Bibliographic Essay 431 index 437 Illustrations figUrEs 1. toussaint louverture 2 2. population of color in saint-Domingue 211 3. mass drowing by the french army 240 4. french war dogs 241 5. Jean-Jacques Dessalines 318 tABlEs 1. french and foreign units scheduled to leave in late 1801 58 2. french and foreign ships composing the squadrons of the first expedition (no vem ber 1801–January 1802) 72 3. toussaint louverture’s army (estimate) 83 4. french and foreign units that arrived during the spring campaign (february–may 1802) 114 5. french and foreign units that arrived during the yellow fever epidemic (June–oc to ber 1802) 169 6. french and foreign units that arrived during rochambeau’s counteroffensive (no vem ber 1802–march 1803) 230 7. last french and foreign units to reach saint- Domingue (April–June 1803) 274 mAps 1. french saint- Domingue and the northern caribbean, 1801 3 2. the spring 1802 campaign 116 Acknowledgments i received plenty of help during the many years i spent researching this book, starting with readers like my wife, preble, and the anonymous review- ers of the University of Alabama press. most crucial was the warm hos- pitality provided by my family and friends who had the bad luck of living close to archival deposits. Among them were nathalie and Emmanuel Blanc, marcel Blanc and michelle Berny, ronald and Elizabeth cook, coralie Dedieu, Jacques and marie- madeleine girard, sophie and guillaume larni- col, and nicolas vercken. they have earned my eternal gratitude and a warn- ing that future research projects might force me again to monopolize their couch. my research trips were funded in part by mcneese state University’s Evelyn shaddock murray grant, shearman grant, Joe gray taylor grant, and violet howell faculty award, the library company’s pEAEs fellowship, and a gilder- lehrman fellowship. i gratefully thank these institutions for their financial support. i would also like to single out employees of the library company of philadelphia, the University of florida’s special collections, and the french naval archives in vincennes for being particularly knowledgeable and friendly.