religions Article The Scythe and the Pentagram: Santa Muerte from Folk Catholicism to Occultism ManonHedenborg-White1,*andFredrikGregorius2,* 1 DepartmentofTheology,UppsalaUniversity,Box25675105,Uppsala,Sweden 2 DepartmentofCultureandCommunication(IKK)/ArtsandHumanities(KVA),LinköpingsUniversitet, 58183Linköping,Sweden * Correspondence:[email protected](M.H.-W.);[email protected](F.G.) AcademicEditors:R.AndrewChesnutandDavidMetcalfe Received:24February2016;Accepted:27May2016;Published:22December2016 Abstract: SantaMuerteisestablishingapresenceamongpractitionersofcontemporaryoccultism in Europe and North America. The occult milieu is highly different from the Mexican cult of SantaMuerte,havingastrongheritageofsecrecyandtraditionassocialcapitalandbeingmostly middle-classinorientation. Nonetheless,thisCatholicfolksaintwithamostlypragmatic,popular, andgrassrootscultisbecomingincreasinglypopularamongoccultists. Basedonasurveyofthree recentbooksonSantaMuertegearedtowardsanAnglophone,occultaudience,itisthereforethe aimofthisarticletounderstandhowandwhytheSkeletonSaintisattractingadherentsintheoccult milieu,byanalyzingtheunderlyingcausesofthisgrowingtrend,aswellastheconditionsshapingit. ItistheoverallargumentofthisarticlethatthebeginningreceptionofSantaMuerteinoccultism isaresultofperceivedneedsanddemandsspecifictotheoccultmilieuratherthancharacteristics inherent in the symbol itself, and that an analysis of the ways in which she is spreading outside ofheroriginalsocioculturalcontextmustbeguidedbyanunderstandingofthenovelonesheis integratedin. Keywords: SantaMuerte;occultism;Catholicism 1. Introduction WhenvisitingthetempleofaDeepSouthoccultlodgein2012,weencounteredsomethingwe hadnotanticipated. AmongthestatuesandartworkrepresentingEgyptian,Indian,andGreco-Roman deities, Kabbalistic symbolism, and demonological beings, was a small altar to Santa Muerte. WhileWesternesotericismisofteneclectic,thiswasthefirsttimewehadencounteredthisMexican folksaintdoingfieldworkintheesotericmilieu. SantaMuerte’spresencewasnotassurprisingasit mayseem. Onthecontrary,thesaintisestablishingapresenceamongpractitionersofcontemporary Westernesotericism,anumbrellatermdenotinganumberofgenealogicallyrelated,heterodoxreligious phenomenaoriginatingintheRenaissanceandwhoseearliestrootscanbefoundinpaganantiquity. Althoughprecisedemarcationsvary,anumberofcurrentsarecommonlyincludedinthecategory: RenaissanceHermeticism,alchemy,andmagic;Germannaturphilosophie;theTarot;somebranchesof Freemasonry;Rosicrucianism;Theosophy;spiritualism;modernoccultism,Satanism,Paganism,and aspectsofNewAge. Forthepurposesofthisarticle,thelastgroupofphenomenaisthemostcentral. Inthenineteenthcentury,whatMaxWeberhastermed“thedisenchantmentoftheworld”birthedwhat isknownasoccultism,aparticularmanifestationofesotericisminmodernitythatissimultaneouslya productofandreactionagainstsomeofitscoretenets. Occultismminglesolderesotericworldviews Religions2017,8,1;doi:10.3390/rel8010001 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions2017,8,1 2of14 with modern notions of individualism and concepts derived from modern science.1 While older esotericism was largely Christian, the search for re-enchantment and existential meaning coupled withgeneraldisillusionmentwiththeChurchcombinedwiththegrowingavailabilityofliterature on ancient paganism, as well as Asian religions compelled many fin-de-siècle occultists to turn to Hinduism,Buddhism,andvarietiesofpre-Christianpaganisminthearticulationoftheirideas. The Anglo-American occult milieu is different from the social context out of which the contemporaryMexicancultofSantaMuerteemerged. WhileSantaMuerteattractsdevoteesfromall layersofsociety,manyifnotmostofherMexicanadherentsbelongtotheworkingclass(Chesnut, Devoted to Death [5], pp. 11–13). Although her connection to cartel violence has been strongly exaggerated, Santa Muerte is nonetheless popular among many lower level criminals, as well as policeandcorrectionalofficers(Chesnut,DevotedtoDeath[5],pp.14,96–98,101–2,106–7;Kristensen, PostponingDeath[6]).Finally,mostofherMexicandevoteeswereraisedCatholic([5],p.115).Incontrast, thecontemporaryoccultmilieuintheUSandEuropegenerallyattractsmembersofthemiddleclass, manyofwhomarecollege-educated.2 Westernesotericismalsohasastrongheritageofsecrecyas social capital, tradition as a high value, and notions of an exclusive, higher truth of reality that is mostlyavailabletoanelectfew.3 Nonetheless,SantaMuerte,aCatholicfolksaintwithamostlypragmatic,popular,andgrassroots cultisbecominganincreasingpresenceintheoccultmilieuoutsideofMexico. Basedonasurveyof threerecentbooksonSantaMuertegearedtowardsanAnglophone,occultistaudience,thepurposeof thisarticleistoexplicatehowandwhytheSkeletonSaintisattractingadherentsintheAnglo-American occult milieu, by analyzing the underlying causes of this growing trend as well as the conditions shapingit.ItistheoverallargumentofthisarticlethatthereceptionofSantaMuerteinAnglo-American occultismthusfarhasbeenshapedbyperceivedneedsanddemandsspecifictothispartoftheoccult milieuratherthancharacteristicsinherentinthesymbolitself,andthatananalysisofthewaysinwhich sheisspreadingoutsideofheroriginalsocioculturalcontextmustbeguidedbyanunderstandingof thenovelonesheisintegratedin.4 2. WhatisWesternEsotericism? AcademicdebatesregardinghowproperlytodefineWesternesotericismhavebeenongoingsince itsinceptionasafieldoflegitimateresearch,andfarexceedthefocusofthisstudy.5 Inthisarticle,weare 1 Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996[1];cf.Hutton,TheTriumphoftheMoon([2],pp.174–75,395);Owen, ThePlaceofEnchantment[3];Urban,MagiaSexualis,2006[4]. 2 Thereiscurrentlyalackofresearchoncontemporaryoccultism, includingquantitativedataonaverageincomeand educationallevel.However,itispossibletodrawsomeconclusions,partlyduetothegreateravailabilityofsuchresearch oncontemporaryPaganismandwitchcraft,whichisdemographicallysimilarandoftenoverlapswithoccultism.Seee.g., Berger, Leach, andShaffer, VoicesfromthePaganCensus[7]. However, whileBergeretal. concludethatthebroader milieuofPaganismandwitchcraftappearstohaveahigherpercentageofwomenthanmen(thisisalsosupportedby Hutton,TheTriumphoftheMoon([2],p.401f.),theoppositeappearstobetrueofanumberofinitiatoryoccultfraternities, includingtheOrdoTempliOrientisandtheDragonRouge.SeeHedenborg-White,forthcomingdoctoraldissertation[8], andGranholm, DarkEnlightenment([9], pp. 91–92). GranholmalsostatesthatmanymembersoftheDragonRouge areuniversityeducated([9],pp. 107,197–98). Scholarshavealsoattestedthatmanyoccultistsreadandareinfluenced byscholarlypublicationsontheirreligiousfield. AspremandGranholm,“ConstructingEsotericisms”[10];Granholm, DarkEnlightenment([9],p.198).Thisalsosupportstheconclusionthatthecontemporaryoccultmilieuis,byandlarge,quite highlyeducated. 3 TheimportantroleofsecrecyandinitiationasaformofsocialcapitalinWesternesotericismhasbeendebatedinanumber ofpublications. Seee.g.,Pasi,“TheProblemsofRejectedKnowledge: ThoughtsonWouterHanegraaff’sEsotericism andtheAcademy”[11];Stuckrad,LocationsofKnowledge,2010[12];Hanegraaff,EsotericismandtheAcademy,2012[13]. Whileinactualitymanyofthebeliefsandpracticesassociatedwithvariousbranchesofoccultismhaveactuallybeenbroadly available,manyoccultauthorsnonethelessemphasizeaviewofrealityasmany-layeredandpartlyconcealed. 4 Needlesstosay,therearealsoimportantexamplesofhowelementsofWesternesotericismhavebecomeintegratedinto thecultofSantaMuerteinMexico,andviceversa. AsthefocusofthisarticleisthereceptionofSantaMuerteamong Anglo-Americanoccultists,theseprocessesexceedthescopeofthisstudy,anditisourhopethatfutureresearchwill attendtotheinterfacebetweenoccultismandfolkCatholicisminMexico,aswellasthetrajectoryofthiscrossoveramong HispanophonedevoteeslivingintheUS. 5 Forabriefreview,seeHanegraaff,EsotericismandtheAcademy,2012([13],pp.314–67). Religions2017,8,1 3of14 guidedbythetheoreticalmodeldevelopedbypioneeringesotericismscholarWouterJ.Hanegraaff, whotracestheoriginsofesotericismtothehistoricallyambivalentrelationshipbetweenEuropean culture and pagan antiquity [13]. Hanegraaff sees Western esotericism as comprised of “rejected knowledges”;adiversesetofworldviewsandepistemologiesrelegatedtothewastebasketofWestern cultureinitsattemptstodefinetruereligion,soundscience,andmodernity. AlthoughChristianity wasthedominantfaithintheRomanEmpireinthelate4thcentury,Platonismremainedacentral influenceonChristiantheologyupuntiltheReformation([13],p. 77). TheRenaissancewitnessedthe flourishingofanarrativeofagelesswisdomaccordingtowhichancientsagessuchasZoroaster,Plato, andHermeswereallmouthpiecesofauniversal,divinewisdomthatwasalsoexpressedinChristian teachings. Nourishedbytherecentavailabilityofalargecorpusofpagandocuments,aswellastexts onJewishkabbalahandmagicandsciencefromtheIslamicworld,avibrantintellectualmilieumostly centeredinItalygaverisetoanumberofprimarilyCatholicthinkersseekingtoharmonizeaspectsof paganlearning,particularlyreligiousPlatonism,withChristiandoctrine. FarfromconstitutingarejectionofChristianity,theancientwisdomnarrativecouldbeseenas a way of bolstering its claims to timeless legitimacy ([13], pp. 5f, 8, 16, 27f, 42, 72f, 77). However, anumberofoverwhelminglyProtestantcriticsviewedtheancientwisdomnarrativeasevidenceof thedegeneracyandcorruptionofCatholicism,attackingthethoughtoftheChristianPlatonistsin anumberofpolemicalwritings. Hanegraaffidentifiesthisgenreastheearlyoriginsofthehistoric studyofwhatistodayknownasWesternesotericism,beingthefirsttotreatallofthethenexisting currentstodayseenasesotericasacoherentphenomenon. Thiscanthusbeseenasthefirststageof discursiverejectionthroughwhichwhatisnowknownasWesternesotericismbegantobeseparated outasadelimitedculturalfield([13],pp. 78–82,93ff,127). Thesecondphaseismarkedbythelate 17thcenturyandonwardsintotheEnlightenment,whenitwasincreasinglyheldthataspectsofpagan philosophycouldbeusefulaslongastheywereinharmonywithreasonandwerenotintermixedwith religion. Thusemergedphilosophicaleclecticism,thatis,thetranshistoricalstudyofphilosophyaimed atextractingitssupposedlyrationaltruthsfromthemagicalsuperstitionstheywereallegedlymired in. Hence,thereligiousaspectsofPlatonismwererelegatedtotheculturalwastebasket([13],pp.127ff, 132,140–53). In other words, Western esotericism sensu Hanegraaff first emerged as a “historiographical concept”,comprisingasetofepistemologiesandworldviewsthatwererejectedfirstbymainstream religionasheresyorsin,andsubsequentlybymodernityasirrationalandsuperstitious([13],p.107). Although this means that Western esotericism is partly a construct, Hanegraaff asserts that the rejection was not random. On the contrary, the epistemologies ejected through the articulation oftruereligion,soundscience,andrationalphilosophyshareimportantcharacteristics,namelyafocus onpanentheismandanemphasisonintuitive,ecstaticknowledgeofultimatereality(gnosis)([13], pp.371–73). Moreover,thediscursiveexorcismoftheseworldviewscreatedanattractivealternativeto peopleseekingtochallengebothreligiousdogmatismandmaterialistdisenchantment. Romanticism is an example of this, which also contributed to the emergence of a self-aware esoteric and occult milieu that perceived itself as separate from or even opposed to the dual pillars of doctrinal faith andpositivistscience([13], pp. 23, 243, 253f, 258, 259). Occultismcanthusbeseenasaparticular manifestationofesotericisminmodernity,secularizedesotericism,ortheattemptsbyesotericiststo cometogripswithindustrialization,secularization,modernscience,anddisenchantment.6 6 Cf. Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996[1]. Althoughthisisanextremelycompactsummaryofthe historyanddevelopmentofWesternesotericism,amoredetailedexplicationexceedstheaimandscopeofthisarticleand isnotstrictlyrelevanttoourimmediatepurpose.FormoreinsightintothehistoryofWesternesotericism,thereaderis referredtoe.g.,Hanegraaff,EsotericismandtheAcademy,2012[13];Stuckrad,LocationsofKnowledge,2010[12];Hanegraaff, NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996[1];Faivre,AccesstoWesternEsotericism[14]. Religions2017,8,1 4of14 3. SantaMuerteintheOccult Asmentionedabove,SantaMuerteisbecomingapresenceinthecontemporaryAnglo-American occultmilieu,andagrowingnumberofwebpages,spellbooksandgrimoiresclearlyaimedatanon-Latin readershipintegrateSantaMuertewithaspectsofAnglo-Americanoccultism. Below,wewillpresent and compare the structure and contents of three English-language introductions on Santa Muerte geared towards a non-Hispanophone, occult audience before proceeding to a discussion of what thesebooksrevealaboutthecontemporaryoccultmilieu.7 Duetothespaceconfinesofthisstudy, ourpresentationofthesourcematerialwillbeverybrief. Thethirdwrittenworkscrutinizedwillbe presentedatgreaterlength,asitissubstantiallylongerthanthetwoothers. 3.1. GrimoireofSantaMuertebySophiaDiGregorio Published in 2013 by Winter Tempest Books, Sophia diGregorio’s Grimoire of Santa Muerte comprises117pagesandservesasapracticalintroductiontoSantaMuerteaimedat“English-only speaking,non-Catholics”(SophiadiGregorio,GrimoireofSantaMuerte[15],p. iii). diGregoriopresents herselfasanoccultistandformerWiccanfromafamilyofCatholics.8 Shehaspreviouslypublished books on spell-casting, non-Wiccan witchcraft, and vampires, seemingly mostly through Winter TempestBooks,andalsoappearstobethepublisher’smainauthor. Incontrasttomoreestablished esotericpublishinghouses,amajorityofthetitlesissuedbyWinterTempestBooksappeartofocus onmagicalmethodsforacquiringmaterialwealth,prosperity,orharmingone’senemies. However, GrimoireofSantaMuerteappearstobeitssolepublicationthatisbasedonLatinAmericanspirituality.9 In terms of the ritual and devotional practices described, Grimoire of Santa Muerte is similar tomanyspellbooksandpamphletsdistributedinbotanicasonbothsidesoftheUS-Mexicoborder: mostofthebookismadeupofprayers,instructionsforhowtoestablishanaltar,consecratecandles andtalismans,andperformspellsaimedatsolvingeverydayproblemsconnectedtorelationships, prosperity,legalissues,orprotection([15],pp. 33–108). Thebookalsoincludesseveralversionsofthe novena,atraditionalsequenceofprayerstoberecitedonninesubsequentnights([15],pp. 40–46,76–77, 81). LikemanyHispanophonespellbooksfocusedonSantaMuerte,diGregorioeschewsmorecomplex theologicalspeculationinfavorofpracticalinstructionsfordevelopingaconcreterelationshipwith SantaMuerte. TheGrimoirealsocomprisesanoverviewofcolorcorrespondencesandsuitablealtar offeringstoSantaMuerte([15],pp. 30–31,37–40). Despitethesesimilarities,diGregorio’streatmentofCatholicismrevealsthattheworkisintended foradifferentaudiencethanmanyMexicanspellbooksontheSkeletonSaint.AsiscommoninMexican devotion,sheincludesCatholicprayerssuchasGloryBe,OurFather,andHailMary,andoutlines theuseoftherosaryandsignofthecrosspriortoinvokingSantaMuerte([15],pp. 20–22). However, sheintegratesthisCatholiccontentinanon-ChristocentricnarrativebyclaimingthatCatholicismis reallybornfrom“paganismandtheoccult,althoughthisisofficiallydeniedbythechurch”([15],p.15). ShearguesthatChristianityhasitsrootsinthepre-ChristianpaganreligionsoftheMediterraneansuch asthecultoftheGreekgodDionysus,aswellasinastrology,andthedoctrineofthefourelements ofearth,air,fire,andwater([15],pp.15–17). SheidentifiesJesuswiththesun,“passingthroughthe twelvesignsofthezodiac,representedintheChristianallegorybythetwelvedisciples”,andclaims thattheEucharisticwaferoftheCatholicmassrepresentsthesolar, masculinedivineforceunited withitsfeminineandlunarcounterpart,identifiedwiththecupofwine([15],p. 16). Shealsoclaims 7 Ourinterpretationofthetargetaudienceoftheseworksisbasedontheauthors’self-presentations; thefactthatthe publishinghousesbehindthemareclearlyorientedtowardsanoccult,Pagan,orNewAgemarket;andthediscursive conventionstheyrelateto.Ourselectionofbooksisnotintendedtoreflecttheoccultmilieucomprehensively,butratherto exemplifydifferentapproachestointroducingSantaMuertetoanoccultistaudience. 8 “TheDangersofWiccanCovensandOtherNeo-PaganGroupstoWomenandChildren”[15]. 9 Thepublishinghousehasnowebsitepresentingacomprehensivelistingofitspublications.Foranoverview,see“Browseby BookPublisher:WinterTempestBooks.”[16] Religions2017,8,1 5of14 thattheChristiancrossreallyrepresentsthefourelementsandtheTetragrammaton,andcontends thatOurFatherisreallyaninvocationoftheelements([15],pp. 17–21). WhilemanyoftheCatholic aspectsofMexicanSantaMuertedevotionarenominallyretainedindiGregorio’sbook,theyarethus re-interpretedasaveiledmanifestationoforiginallypaganoroccultteachings. Thiscanbeinterpreted asawayofmeetingthepreferencesofanAnglo-Americanoccultistreadership. diGregorio’sidiosyncraticinterpretationofbothancientpaganismandChristianitycanbeseenas awayofresolvingpossibletensionscreatedbythelargelyCatholicoriginsandcontextoftheMexican SantaMuertecultwiththewidespreadskepticismtowardsmainstreamChristianityincontemporary, Anglo-Americanoccultism. diGregorioindicatesherawarenessofthedifficultyofmakingafolksaint steepedinCatholicsymbolismappealingtoanoccultistreadershipbypaganizingSantaMuerteand linkinghertotheMexicanunderworldgoddessMictecacihuatl,variousMayandeitiesofdeathandthe underworld,andGreco-Romandeities,includingThanatos,Athena,Minerva,andHecate([15],p.8).10 diGregorio also explicitly expresses her awareness of this fact by writing that readers who have a “verynegativeassociationwithwhatseemstobeChristiansymbolism”maysubstituteanelemental invocationfortheconventionalCatholicopeningrites([15],p.24).Shealsodisplaysanegativeattitude towardsmainstreamChristianityatlargethatiscommontocontemporaryoccultworks,arguingthat theChristianviewofdeathrepresents“judgment,punishment,thefiresofHellandseparationfrom theworldoftheliving”whereaspaganismismorefocusedondeathas“atransitionandachangeof condition”([15],p. 4). ByexpressingcriticismtowardsmainstreamChristianity,acknowledgingthat readersmaybeprejudicedtowardstheChristianfaith,andintegratingSantaMuerteintoalineageof pagandeitiespredatingChristianity,shethusnegotiatestheintroductionofthisCatholicfolksaintto thenovelcontextofAnglo-Americanoccultism. 3.2. SantisimaMuerte: HowtoCallandWorkWithHolyDeath “SantisimaMuerte: HowtoCallandWorkwithHolyDeath”wasoriginallypartofanongoing seriesofpamphletscalledGuidestotheUnderworld,issuedbytheEnglishesotericpublisherHadean Press. Theseriesfocusedonpracticalmethodsforritualmagicandinvocationofdemonicbeingsas wellasCatholicsaints,primarilybasedonEuropeangrimoires. Thetextwaslaterreprintedaspartof acollectionofpamphletsdealingwithsaints. ThepublicationsofHadeanPresscombineolderfolk magicwithmoreestablishedesotericsystems,suchasreinterpretationsofAleisterCrowley’sThelema (http://www.shop.hadeanpress.com/recent-releases/). Therearealsoagrowingnumberoftitles focusedonvariousmodalitiesofAfricanDiasporareligion,exemplifyingagrowingtrendamonga numberofcontemporaryoccultiststocombineEuropeanfolkmagicwithAfricanDiasporaforms.11 Thepublisherstatesthattheuseofpamphletsasamediumisdeliberate,asitrespondstoalongingfor pre-Internetexclusivityandauthenticity,linkingitexplicitlytotheuseofmagicalpamphletsinearlier periods(http://www.hadeanpress.com/guides-to-the-underworld/). Thisstatementisillustrative, seeminglyindicatingawillingnesstoaddresswhatmaybeseenasasenseofdisenchantmentcaused bytheincreasingavailabilityofoccultmaterialresultingfromdigitalization. “SantisimaMuerte: HowtoCallandWorkWithHolyDeath”canthusbeunderstoodaspart of a nostalgic discourse in contemporary occultism that seeks return to a more authentic magical practice. Nonetheless,thewayinwhichitsauthor,ConjuremanAli,presentsSantaMuerte,isvery clearlyshapedbyvaluesandaspirationsspecifictothecontemporaryoccultmilieu. ConjuremanAli, also known as Dr. Raven, is a well-known writer and practitioner of various forms of folk magic, bothEuropeanandAfricanDiaspora,andpriestandfounderofoneofthefewsemi-publicQuimbanda templesactiveintheUSAtoday. 10 TheassociationwithMictecacihuatlisnotuncommoninMexico.Chesnut,DevotedtoDeath([5],p.28). 11 Seee.g.,Frisvold,Exu[17];Frisvold,PombaGira[18];Frisvold,PaloMayombe[19]. Religions2017,8,1 6of14 Theritualspresentedin“SantisimaMuerte”arebasedonoutlinesfoundinMexicanspellbooks, and include a common version of the novena.12 All are also set within the framework of folk Catholicism. Similar to many Hispanophone texts on Santa Muerte as well as diGregorio’s work, the spells are aimed at pragmatic goals. However, Ali’s approach to Santa Muerte is different from that of diGregorio. Despite addressing a non-Mexican, primarily occultist readership, he is clearly opposed to any efforts to paganize Santa Muerte, stating that she is a “purely Mexican, folk-Catholic phenomenon and should be respected as such”, and that attempting to “syncretize herwithneo-pagandeitiesorremoveherfromherculturalrootswouldbedisrespectfultobothher andherdevotees”([21],p.161). Thus,heisclearlyopposedtoapproacheslikethatofdiGregorio. However, he is more neutral to the identification between Santa Muerte and the Aztec goddess Mictecacihuatl,andinterestinglyalsolesscondemningofMexicanPaganattemptstocreatesyncretism betweenthetwo([21],p.163). Thus,hisanimosityisseeminglymostlyaimedatEuropeanandNorth AmericanPagansandoccultists. Thismaybeinterpretedasanattempttoavoidaccusationsofcultural appropriationwhilesimultaneouslymaintaininganemphasisonwhatisperceivedastraditional. AlthoughAliseeminglyattemptstopresentSantaMuerteinastraditionalamanneraspossible, histreatmentofCatholicismisstilldifferentfromthatofatypicalMexicanspellbookandheclearly anticipates an ambivalent or negative reader response to mainstream Christianity. Although he stresses that Santa Muerte should be approached like other Catholic saints, he presents this as a matter of adherence to tradition rather than an expression of his own personal beliefs or those of his readers. The importance of Catholicism in the development of the Santa Muerte figure is thusacknowledgedbutsimultaneouslyrelativized,astheCatholiccustomsrecommendedarenot presentedaspartofanoverarchingexistentialframeworkaccordingtowhichallofcreationshouldbe interpreted. Ali’sinsistenceontraditionisalsoindicativeoftheparticularconditionsandnormsofthe contemporaryoccultmilieu,inwhichtheconceptoftraditionholdsveryhighculturalandspiritual capital.13 Interestingly, Ali’s insistence on tradition and how one should or should not approach Santa Muerte is also rather untraditional in relationship to the eclectic and non-dogmatic cult of SantaMuerteinMexico. HisattempttopresentatraditionalinterpretationofSantaMuertecanthus beseenasawayofcateringtotheveryspecificculturaltastesofanoccultistaudience. 3.3. LaSantaMuerte: UnearthingtheMagicandMysticismofDeath TomasPrower’sLaSantaMuerte: UnearthingtheMagic&MysticismofDeathisthefirstworkon Santa Muerte issued by a major esoteric and New Age publishing house, Llewellyn International. WhileDiGregorioandConjuremanAliclearlytargetanoccultreadership,Prowerdrawsmuchmore explicitlyonoccultandNewAgesymbolismandpractice.ContrarytoAli,Prowerwritesthatonedoes nothavetoadoptCatholicritesorcustomsiftheyarecontrarytoone’sownbeliefs,contendingthat SantaMuertecanbeintegratedintoone’sownreligionandthathermagicisavailabletoanyonewho approachesher“withanopenmindandanopenheart”([23],pp. 10,31). Thus,Proweralsorelativizes theimportanceofCatholicismintheSantaMuertecult,althoughinadifferentmanner,bypresenting ChristianityasbutoneoutofmanyequallyacceptablepathwaystoSantaMuerte. Thissentimentis alsoechoedinthefactthatthebook—instarkcontrasttoAli’swork—featuresnoprayerstoJesus, God,oranyothersaint,noranyversionofthenovena. Instead,thespellsarefocusedonvisualizations andcorrespondences,andProwerwritesthatwordsspokentoSantaMuerteshouldcomefromthe heartandnotbewrittendown. 12 Forthisarticlewehadthefollowingtitlesavailableforcomparison;Altares,Ofrendas,OracionesyRitualesalaSantaMuerte (2007);Rey,Victoria(2012). SantaMuerteMagiaVerde. Pita,Laila(2013). TestimoniosdelaSantísima,RelatosVerdaderosde MilagrosRecibidosporlosfielesseguidoresdelaSantaMuerte,jimenez,Beto(2015)LaBibliadeLaSantaMuerteaswellas descriptionsofritualsandspellsincludedine.g.,Chesnut,DevotedtoDeath[5];Kristensen,PostponingDeath[6];Fraser, SantaMuerte.[20] 13 Fordiscussionsontheimportanceoftraditionasasourceofauthorityinesotericism,seee.g.,Hammer,ClaimingKnowledge, ([22],pp.85–200);AspremandGranholm,“ConstructingEsotericisms”[10]. Religions2017,8,1 7of14 ProwerdownplaystheconnectionbetweenSantaMuerteandsocioeconomicmarginalization that,althoughmentioned,isnotpresentedascentraltohercult. RatherthanintroducingSantaMuerte asparticularlyconnectedtoanysocialclasssegment,Prowerwritesthatherdevoteesarepartofa mysteryschoolakintotheEleusinianmysteriesofAncientGreece([23],p. 30). Healsopresentsatype ofarticleoffaithforthedevoteesofSantaMuerte. Referringtothecultas“we”,hepresentshimselfas aspokespersonforalargercommunityofadherents: Essentially, we believe that the world is good. We believe that the divine energy (God,theuniverse,theTao,etc.) isperfect,andsincethatdivineenergyisineverything, everything is perfect. (...) The problems of life result from a self-disassociation with everythingelse,thebeliefthatyouareseparatefromallotherthings. (...) Bybelieving thatweareallequallyconnectedintheweboflife,harmingothersbecomesmuchless appealingsincethedestructionofasinglestrandultimatelyaffectsthewholeandthreatens thestabilityoftheentireweb. Amorephilosophicalconceptofthisbeliefispopularly knownindharmicreligionsaskarma. Everythingyoudowilleventuallycomebackto you. (...) Thus, a devotee of La Santa Muerte and a practitioner of her magic would, attheveryleastonaselfishlevel, notwanttocauseharmtoanotherbecauseitwould resultinharmultimatelycomingtothemselves. Althoughnotalldevoteesexplicitlycallit karma,thisethicofcosmicreciprocityisamaintenetofworkingwithLaSantaMuerteand understandinghowtoutilizehermagic([23],p. 11). Healsocontends: AnancientBuddhisttreatisesaysthatholdingontoangerislikegraspingahotcoalwith theintentofthrowingitatsomeone;youaretheonewhogetsburned. Theangerandhate weharborwithinusaffectsusnegatively. Evenbeforereleasingahexandsufferingthe karmicconsequencesofdoingso,angerandhatemakeusspirituallyandphysicallysick ([23],p. 215). TheabovequotedemonstratesaverydifferentattitudetoSantaMuertetothatofConjuremanAli, whoincludesritualsforharmingandevenkillingenemies,andmostlikelyalsofrommanyofthe SkeletonSaint’sMexicandevoteesonbothsidesoftheMexico-USborder.14 Whileethicalprescriptions arealsopresentinsomeoftheMexicanliterature,Prower’snotionof“cosmicreciprocity”isphrased intermsofwesternizednotionsofkarmathatcanbetracedtotheinterestinHinduismandBuddhism infin-de-siècleoccultism,ratherthantheCatholicdoctrineofsin. Hisattitudeto“cosmicreciprocity” as something akin to a natural law is similar to that found among many Wiccans ([2], p. 396). ProweralsoclearlydrawsonNewAgediscoursesofuniversalinterconnectedness,positivethinking, and westernized interpretations of Indian religion ([1], pp. 130, 132, 238–42, 286, 296, 374, 467, 488–90;[24],p. 110). In contrast to both Ali and diGregorio, Prower places especial emphasis on Santa Muerte’s femininity,construedintermsthatclearlydrawondiscoursesofgenderdominantinmanyforms of Wicca, in which the four elements are gender coded and the universe seen as governed by a masculine-femininepolarity[25–28]: [I]n the eyes of outside traditions, La Santa Muerte is most often associated with the elementsofearthandwater. Deitiesoffemininityanddeathtendtobeassociatedwith theearthbecauseofitsabilitytocreate,sustain,andnurturelife. Earthisalsotheelement thatexperiencesdeathmostfrequentlythroughthechangingoftheseasonsandthefinite existenceoforganicmatter. (...) Withregardtowater,LaSantaMuerte’sfemininityand 14 ConjuremanAli,“SantisimaMuerte,”([21],p. 184). Onthemoreambivalentroleofharmfulmagicandcursinginthe MexicancultofSantaMuerte,seeChesnut,DevotedtoDeath.[5] Religions2017,8,1 8of14 dualexistenceinboththespiritualandphysicalworldsgrantherthisassociation. Water is symbolic of emotions and intuition—what is visible on the surface often masks the profundityofwhatliesbelow. Whilebothmenandwomenpossesslogicandintuition, ingeneral,womenareblessedwithastrongersenseofintuitivewisdom,thuslinkingthem withwater([23],p.95f). ProweralsopresentsagenderedinterpretationofthecolorsassociatedwithSantaMuerte. Drawingon a Westernized version of Daoist doctrine, he relates her black and white robes to yin and yang, respectively. Prowerconnectstheblack(or“yin”)SantaMuertetosupposedlyfemininecharacteristics, suchasreceptivity,whilethewhite(or“yang”)SantaMuerte,seeminglyamoremasculineversionof her,ismoresuitableforprojectingenergy: ...femininity, intuition, night, soft, cold, wet, and yielding are all categorized under black yin energy. For these reasons, the black aspect of La Santa Muerte is used in protectionmagic,wheretheobjectiveisnottoprojectenergy,butratherintuitivelyforesee negativeenergyandtakeawayitsharmfuleffectsandneutralizeit,or,ifthat’snotpossible, tobecomeinvisibletotheharmfulenergyandavoiditaltogether. (...) Whenwepurify something we expel and push all the toxins and negative energies away, just as all the colorsinthevisiblespectrumareexpelledandpushedawaytomakesomethingappear white. IntheTaoistsymbolforyin-yang,theyangenergyoftheuniverseissymbolizedby thewhitesideofthecircle,whichisoftenmisinterpretedasgood,butisbetterunderstood asaggressivenessandprojecting. Thusmasculinity,logic,day,hard,warm,dry,andgiving areallcategorizedunderwhiteyangenergy([23],p. 84). TheaboveexcerptsdealingwithSantaMuerte’sfemininityanditssupposedmagicalconnotationsare highlyinteresting,illustratingbroaderthemesofgenderconstructionintheoccultandPaganmilieus. UnlikeAlianddiGregorio,Proweralsoemphasizestheimportanceoftransformingthemagician’s ownconsciousnessbyenteringintoa“magicalmindset”([23],p. 155f). Prowerarguesthat,inorderto domagic,onemustfirstaccessanalternatelevelofconsciousnessbytransformingbrainfrequencies tothemore“dreamlike”levelsofalpha,theta,anddelta[23]. Thisemphasisonconsciousnessasthe principalritualtooldrawsstronglyonwhatbecameacentralthemeinnineteenthcenturyoccultism andhascontinuedtobefundamentaltooccultistdiscoursesince[3,4]. Similarly,theinvocationof science-likelanguagedrawsonthemodernoccultpreoccupationofattemptingtoharmonizemagic withscientificdiscovery.15 ItisalsoworthnotingthattheuseofstatuesandimagesholdsnoprominentplaceinPrower’s manual,alsosettingitapartfromthetwopreviouslydescribedworksaswellastheorientationof muchoftheMexicancultofSantaMuerte, andsomespellsdonotevenmentionSantaMuerteor any other saint.16 Nonetheless, similar to the spells outlined by Conjureman Ali and DiGregorio, thoseProwerdetailsaregenerallyorientedtowardsmaterialends,likelove,money,legalmatters, andprotection. 4. SantaMuerteandtheOccult 4.1. ANewContext Inthepreviouspages,wehavepresentedthreerecentEnglish-languagebooksonSantaMuerte. WhilePrower’sisthemostexplicitinthisregard,allthreearegearedtowardsanoccultistreadership withaverydifferentsocioculturalorientationthanthatoftheMexicancultofSantaMuerte. Thus, 15 Owen,ThePlaceofEnchantment[3];Hutton,TheTriumphoftheMoon([2],pp.174–75,395).Thistendencycanalsobeseenin muchNewAgethought,seee.g.,Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996([1],pp.62–76). 16 Seee.g.,Prower,LaSantaMuerte([23],p.194). Religions2017,8,1 9of14 theirstructureandcontentarealsoimpactedbynormsandconventionscurrenttotheoccultmilieu. Inthefollowingpages,wewillhighlightandanalyzethesignificanceofthevariouswaysinwhichthe authorsdiscussednegotiatetheseconventions. BystressingSantaMuerte’sfemininityandbuildingonanessentializedunderstandingofthe latterasreceptive,intuitive,andpliant,Prowerdrawsonadiscourseofgenderpolaritythathasbeen centraltomanyformsofmodernoccultism.17 ThiscanbeseenasawayoffamiliarizingSantaMuerte by integrating her into an established, gendered framework. The tendency to map all of creation onto a perceived ontological dialectic between masculinity and femininity can partly be traced to culturaltransformationsduringthenineteenthcentury,andplaystrongpartsinwritingsofanumber ofprominentoccultistsincludingAleisterCrowley,DionFortune,JuliusEvola,andGeraldGardner, thefounderofWicca.18 WhilecontemporaryMexicansocietyishardlylackinginideasaboutgender, andSantaMuerte’sfemininityiscertainlyimportanttounderstandinghercultinitsMexicancontext, thisdiscourseofamale–female,active–passivedichotomyontowhichallofcreationcanbemappedis arguablydrawnfrommodern,Anglo-AmericanoccultismandPaganismratherthanMexicanfolk Catholicism. diGregorioalsobrieflyreferencestheconceptofgenderpolarityinherinterpretationof theCatholicmassasasymbolicunionbetweenmasculineandfeminine. ThefactthatAlidoesnot mentionideasofgenderpolarityatallcanpotentiallybeinterpretedasindicativeofhisaimtoadhere tomorecloselytowhatheperceivesastradition. Proweralsopresentsaviewofdeathastransformationbywritingthatthespellsinthebook areofadestructivenatureinthesenseofthemagicaimingattransformingacurrentstateofbeing toanother;theoldstatemustdieinordertomakewayforthenew([23],p. 155). Theemphasison deathastransformationratherthanitsliteralsenseisacommonthemeinoccultism,exemplifiedin thewritingsofAleisterCrowley,whoidentifiedthehumansoulwiththesunandarguedthatwhen thesunsetsintheWestitonlyappearstodisappear. Thus,Crowleyreasoned,deathissimplyaname forthesoul’sonwardjourneyintoanewstateofbeing([33],p. 46). ProweralsoviewsSantaMuerte asaremedytothetendencyofthemodernworldtohidedeathawayandshelteritscitizensfrom it([23],p. 19). ThisreflectsacleardifferencebetweenSantaMuerte’sMexicancontextandthatof Prower’sintendedreadership. TheconceptofdeathhasbeenidentifiedascentraltoMexicancultural identityasevincedbytheiconicCatrinaCalaveraandDiadelosMuertoscelebrations,andChesnut notesthatSantaMuerteis“asfamiliartoMexicansasdeathitself”[5,34]. Moreover,thelethaldanger faceddailybymanyMexicancitizensonbothsidesofthedrugwarisanimportantcontributingfactor totheSkeletonSaint’spopularity([5],pp. 96–120;[6]). Withnewhomicidesmakingheadlinesdaily, contemporaryMexicansocietycanhardlybesaidtoshelteritscitizensfromdeath. Similarly,astudy ofSantaMuertistatransgendersexworkersinGuadalajaraandSanFranciscoindicatedthesedevotees’ experienceoflivingunderthedailythreatofdeadlyhomophobicandtransphobicviolencestrengthen theirfaithandsenseofaffinityinSantaMuerte[35]. Thus,thisstatementonPrower’spartappearsto beaveryclearreflectionofthefactthathisbookisintendedtointroducethecultofSantaMuertetoa differentaudiencethanthatofurban,working-classMexico. 4.2. NegotiatingCatholicism Ali, DiGregorio, and Prower relate to Catholicism in a different way from large parts of the theSantaMuertecultonbothsidesoftheUS-Mexicanborder. MexicandevoteesofSantaMuerte existinaculturallyCatholiccontext,andwerelikelyraisedCatholicwhethertheyarepracticingor 17 Seee.g., Urban, MagiaSexualis, 2006[4]; Hedenborg-White, “ToHimtheWingedSecretFlame, ToHertheStooping Starlight.”[8] 18 Cf.Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996([1],pp.88,152–54);Urban,MagiaSexualis,2006([4],pp.55–80, 109–39,162–222).Genderpolarityisnotuncontroversialinmodernoccultism,andhasbeenchallengedonthegroundsof heteronormativityandgenderessentialismbyanumberofimportantproponentsandmovements.Seee.g.,([4],pp.222–54); Effertz,Priest/ess[29];Lupa,“TheFemaleKinkMagician”[30];Kaldera,Hermaphrodeities[31];Faerywolf,“TheQueerCraft: RethinkingMagickalPolarity.”[32]. Religions2017,8,1 10of14 not([5],p.22). Moreover,ChesnutnotesthatmostdevoteesoftheSkeletonSainthehasencountered viewtheirdevotiontoheras“complementarytotheirCatholicfaithorevenapartofit”([5],p.115). It is thus unsurprising that Hispanophone spellbooks on Santa Muerte contain few examples of Catholicismbeingexplicitlyrejected.19 However,theabovementionedoccultauthorsoperatewithin thediscursivecontextofcontemporary,Anglo-Americanoccultism,inwhichChristianityhasavery differentpositionthaninworkingclassMexico. Hanegraaffnotesthattheemergenceofoccultism, especiallyintheAnglophoneworld,drewstronglyonan“anti-Christianmythographicaltradition” originatingintheEnlightenment([13],p. 233). Aprominentexampleofthiswasthesympathyforthe Devilamongofanumberofprominenteighteenthcenturyintellectuals,whobuiltonatraditionof counter-readingJohnMilton’sParadiseLost20. Whilenotallwereanti-Christian,allexpressedstrongly anti-clericalviews,positingLuciferasanintellectualandspiritualidealrepresentingliberty,equality, science,andcriticalthinking[36,37]. Thewritingsoftheseintellectualsprovidedaculturalfoundation for the later evolution of organized, religious Satanism, exemplified by Anton LaVey’s Church of Satanin1966[37]. Severalothernotable20thcenturyoccultistsincludingGeraldGardner,Aleister Crowley,andJuliusEvolawereexplicitlyanti-Christianity,althoughfordifferentreasons. Whilethere arebranchesofmodernesotericismthatbuildonheterodoxinterpretationsofChristiansymbolism anddoctrine,noneofthethreeoccultauthorswhoseworkswehaveanalyzedarespeakinginthis context. As a case in point, all three seemingly feel a need to address and negotiate the presence of folk-Catholicism in the cult of Santa Muerte. While they employ different strategies for doing so,thisindicatesanawarenessofthepotentialdifficultiesofintegratingChristiancontentintothe contemporaryoccultmilieu. Indifferentways,thethreebooksstudiedinthisarticlehighlightacognitivedissonancefacing occultistinterpretersofSantaMuerte,namely,thatofintegratingafolksaintwhoseMexicancultis steepedinCatholiccustomandsymbolismintoaculturalmilieuthatis,atbest,highlyambivalent towardsChristianity. diGregorio,Ali,andProweralladdressandnegotiatethisdissonanceindifferent ways, bypresentingvariousexplanationsoftheCatholicstructureofmanyculticpracticeslinked to Santa Muerte. By integrating Santa Muerte among other pagan deities, drawing explicitly on symbolism and beliefs derived from modern occultism, and de-emphasizing the importance of Catholicisminhercult,AlianddiGregoriopresenttheclearestexamplesofattemptingtointegrate SantaMuerteintoaneclecticnon-Christianoccultcontext. Whethertheyaresuccessfulincraftingan imageofSantaMuertethatiscompellingtooccultistreadersremainstobeseen.However,theirvarious strategiesofnegotiationillustratethatvariousdegreesoftranslationareinevitablyinvolvedwhen religioussymbolsareimportedfromonecontextintoanother. 4.3. SeekingTradition Cultural and socioeconomic class difference is an integral factor in shaping the transmission of Santa Muerte into the Anglo-American occult milieu. Just as the living conditions of her overwhelminglyworking-class,Mexicandevoteesshapestheirdevotionalpracticesandrelationships withthesaint,theparticularconditionsofcontemporaryoccultismaffectthewaysinwhichoccultists relatetoSantaMuerte. SantaMuerte’sintroductionintotheoccultmilieuwaspartlyenabledbythelatemodernmedia landscape. Since her cult went fully public in Mexico in 2002, Santa Muerte has made cameo appearances in the Oliver Stone film Savages (2012) as well as a number of TV shows including BreakingBad,TrueBlood,Dexter,TrueDetective,andAshvs. EvilDead. Asidefromthefinalexample, 19 Anotableexceptionisabookletbeginningwithtenstatementscalled“LosDiezEstadosLaSantaMuerte”,thefirstnineof whichhavebeencopiedverbatimfromAntonLavey’sSatanicBible,inwhichtheDevil’snameisreplacedwiththatofSanta Muerte.LaVey,TheSatanicBible,25,Jimenez,LaBibliadeLaSantaMuerte. 20 NotableexamplesofthistrendincludeWilliamBlake,MaryWollstonecraft,PercyByssheShelley,andLordByroninBritain, andAnatoleFranceandJulesMicheletinFrance.