—————————— THE SATURN MYTH A REINTERPRETATION OF RITES AND SYMBOLS ILLUMINATING SOME OF THE DARK CORNERS OF PRIMORDIAL SOCIETY David N. Talbott —————————— Intrigued by Velikovsky’s claim that Saturn was once the pre-eminent planetary god, David Talbott resolved to examine its mythical character. “I wanted to know,” he wrote, “if ancient sources had a coherent story to tell about the planet . . . I had no inkling of the spectacular tale hidden in the chronicles.” In this startling re-interpretation of age-old symbolism Talbott argues that the “Great God” or “Universal Monarch” of the ancients was not the sun, but Saturn, which once hung ominously close to the earth, and visually dominated the heavens. Talbott’s close textual and symbolic analysis reveals the fundamental themes of Saturn imagery and proves that all of them—including the “cosmic ship”, the “island at the top of the world”, the “eye of heaven” and “the revolving temple” were based on celestial observations in the northern sky. In addition he shows how such diverse symbols as the Cross, “sun”-wheels, holy mountains, crowns of royalty and sacred pillars grew out of ancient Saturn worship. Talbott contends that Saturn's appearance at the time, radically different from today, inspired man's leap into civilization, since many aspects of early civilization can be seen as conscious efforts to re-enact or commemorate Saturn’s organization of his “celestial” kingdom. A fascinating look at ancient history and cosmology, The Saturn Myth is a provocative book that might well change the way you think about man’s history and the history of the universe. David N. Talbott is the founder and former publisher of Pensee, an out-growth of the Student Academic Forum which developed the book, Velikovsky Reconsidered. He is also the co-author of The Ecstasy of Sati-Ra, a cosmological mystery. He now lives with his family in Oregon. Talbott, David N., The Saturn Myth ISBN: 0-385-113376-5 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 76-51986 Copyright © 1980 by David N.Talbott. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. First Edition. This Kindle version created by PapaLazzzaru, Aug 2013 —————————— CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION MYTH AND CATASTROPHE II. THE GREAT FATHER THE “ONE GOD” OF ARCHAIC MONOTHEISM THE UNIVERSAL MONARCH The Age of Kronos The Rites of Kingship THE HEAVEN MAN Who Was Adam? THE GREAT FATHER SATURN THE SATURN MYTH RECONSTRUCTED III. THE POLAR SUN SUN AND SATURN Day And Night SATURN AND THE POLE The Unmoved Mover Egypt Mesopotamia India China The Americas IV. SATURN’S COSMOS THE ENCLOSED SUN The Lost Island THE COSMOS AND THE DIVINE ASSEMBLY The Circle of the Gods THE GREAT MOTHER Womb and Thigh Womb and Cosmos The Hermaphrodite V. THE HOLY LAND THE MOTHER LAND The Egyptian Paradise The World Wheel The One-Wheeled Chariot The City of Heaven The Enclosure as Prototype The World Navel The Ocean VI. THE ENCLOSED SUN-CROSS The Four Rivers of Paradise THE CROSSROADS The Four-eyed or Four-faced God The Foundation Stone The Four Pillars of Heaven Symmetrical Elaborations of the Sun-Cross VII. TEMPLE, CROWN, VASE, EYE, AND CIRCULAR SERPENT THE TEMPLE The Egyptian Temple Temple and Womb The Crown The Vase The Eye The Circular Serpent In Summary: A Coherent Doctrine VIII. THE COSMIC MOUNTAIN Egypt Mesopotamia India Japan, China, Iran, Siberia Siberia Greece and Rome Western Semitic The Americas A Collective Memory The Mount of Masculine Power The Cosmic Mountain Personified The Single Leg The Serpent/Dragon The Stream of Life The King of the Mountain IX. THE CRESCENT The Crescent and Saturn The Crescent and Womb Crescent and Motherland The Crescent and Mount THE HEAVENLY TWINS Who Were the Dioscuri? The Black and White Twins Symbolism of the Crescent THE CRESCENT HORN The Horned Mountain IX THE CRESCENT-SHIP THE CRESCENT-ARMS The Ka-Arms THE CRESCENT-WINGS INTERCONNECTED SYMBOLS The Plant of Life Sword The Altar Above and Below, Left and Right Saturn’s Day CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY ENDNOTES —————————— I. Introduction The planet Saturn today is recognizable only to those who know where to look for it. But a few thousand years ago Saturn dominated the earth as a sun, presiding over a universal Golden Age. Modern man considers it self-evident that our familiar heavens differ hardly at all from the heavens encountered by the earliest star worshippers. He assumes that the most distinctive bodies venerated in primitive times were the sun and moon, followed by the five visible planets and various constellations —all appearing as they do today, but for such ever-so-slight changes as the precession of the equinoxes. This long-standing belief not only confines present discussion of ancient myth and religion; it is the fixed doctrine of modern astronomy and geology: every prevailing theory of the solar system and of earth’s past rests upon an underlying doctrine of cosmic uniformity—the belief that the clocklike regularity of heavenly motions can be projected backward indefinitely. But the evidence assembled in the following pages indicates that within human memory extraordinary changes in the planetary system occurred: in the earliest age recalled by man the planet Saturn was the most spectacular light in the heavens and its impact on the ancient world overwhelming. In fact Saturn was the one “great god” invoked by all mankind. The first religious symbols were symbols of Saturn, and so pervasive was the planet god’s influence that the ancients knew him as the creator, the king of the world, and Adam, the first man. Since the only meaningful defense of this claim is the entire body of evidence presented here, I shall not presume upon the reader’s credulity, but only ask that he follow the narrative to its end. Myth And Catastrophe If our generation disdains the possibility of fact in the language of myth it is because we are aware of discrepancy between myth and the modern world view, and we ascribe it to the blindness or superstition of the ancients. There is hardly an ancient tale which fails to speak of world-destroying upheavals and shifting cosmic orders. Indeed, we are so accustomed to the catastrophic character of the stories that we hardly give it a second thought. When the myths tell of suns which have come and gone, or of planetary gods whose wars threatened to destroy mankind, we are likely to take them as amusing and absurdly exaggerated accounts of local floods, earthquakes, and eclipses—or write them off altogether as expressions of unconstrained fancy. How many scholars, seeking to unravel the astronomical legends and symbols of antiquity, have questioned whether the heavenly bodies have always coursed on the same paths they follow today? In the past three hundred years barely a handful of writers have claimed any connection between myth and actual celestial catastrophe—: William Whiston published in 1696 A New Theory of the Earth, arguing that the biblical Deluge resulted from a cometary cataclysm. The book produced a storm of scientific objections and had no lasting impact outside Christian orthodoxy. In 1882 and 1883 two books by Ignatius Donnelly appeared: Atlantis, the Antediluvian World, and Ragnarok: the Age of Fire and Gravel. Relying on global myths, Donnelly claimed that a massive continent called Atlantis once harboured a primordial civilization, but the entire land sank beneath the sea when a comet rained destruction on the earth. Both of Donnelly’s books became best sellers and are still available today. Yet conventional theories of earth and the solar system remain unaffected by these works. Around the turn of the century Isaac Vail argued in a series of brief papers that myths of cosmic upheaval relate to the collapse of ice bands surrounding our planet. [1] Three quarters of a century after his death, his work is familiar only to the esoteric few. In 1913 Hans Hoerbiger published his Glacial-Kosmogonie, contending that the great catastrophes described in ancient myth occurred when the Earth captured another planet which became our moon. [2] The relatively small interest in Hoerbiger’s thesis vanished within a couple of decades. This was the extent of noteworthy research into myth and catastrophe when Immanuel Velikovsky, in early 1940, first wondered whether a cosmic disturbance may have accompanied the Hebrew Exodus. According to the biblical account, massive plagues occurred, Sinai erupted, and the pillar of cloud and fire moved in the sky. His quest for a solution led Velikovsky through a systematic survey of world mythology and eventually to the conclusion that ancient myths constitute a collective memory of celestial disorder. The great gods, Velikovsky observed, appear explicitly as planets. In the titanic wars vividly depicted by ancient chroniclers the planets moved on erratic courses, appearing to wage battles in the sky, exchanging electrical discharges, and more than once menacing the earth. Velikovsky set forth his claims of celestial catastrophe in his book Worlds in Collision (published in 1950), proposing that first Venus and then Mars, in the period 1500-686 B.C., so disturbed the Earth’s axis as to produce world-wide destruction. The book became an immediate best seller and the focus of one of the great scientific controversies of this century. [3] I mention Velikovsky not only because his work obviously relates to the thesis of this book, but because, as a matter of record, Velikovsky first directed my attention toward Saturn. In a manuscript still awaiting publication Velikovsky proposed that the now-distant planet was once the dominant heavenly body, and he identified Saturn’s epoch with the legendary Golden Age. While I have not seen Velikovsky’s unpublished manuscript on Saturn, a brief outline of his idea inspired the present inquiry: was Saturn once the preeminent light in the heavens? Yet I possessed at the outset no conception of the broad thesis presented here—which fell into place with surprising rapidity, once I set out to reconstruct the Saturn myth. While expecting to find, at best, only faint echoes of Saturn (or no hint at all), I found instead that the ancients, looking back to “the beginnings,” were obsessed with the planet-god and strove in a thousand ways to relive Saturn’s epoch. The most common symbols of antiquity, which our age universally regards as solar emblems ( , etc.) were originally unrelated to our sun. They were literal pictures of Saturn, whom the entire ancient world invoked as “the sun.” In the original age to which the myths refer, Saturn was no remote speck faintly discerned by terrestrial observers; the planet loomed as an awesome and terrifying light. And if we are to believe the wide-spread accounts of Saturn’s age, the planet-god’s home was the unmoving celestial pole, the apparent pivot of the heavens, far removed from the visible path of Saturn today. At first glance, however, the Saturn myth seems to present an entanglement of bizarre images. The earliest, most venerated religious texts depict the great god sailing in a celestial ship, consorting with winged goddesses, fashioning revolving islands, cities and temples, or abiding upon the shoulders of a cosmic giant. It is impossible to pursue Saturn’s ancient image without encountering the paradise of Eden, the lost Atlantis, the fountain of youth, the one-wheeled “chariot of the gods,” the all-seeing Eye of heaven, or the serpent-dragon of the deep. Though celebrated as living, visible powers, none of Saturn’s personifications or mythical habitats conforms to anything in our familiar world. Yet once one seeks out the concrete nature of these images, it becomes clear that each referred to the same celestial form. The subject is a Saturnian configuration of startling simplicity—whose appearance, transformation, and eventual disappearance became the focus of all ancient rites. I now have little doubt that, if Velikovsky had pursued the Saturn question to the end, he would have perceived a vastly greater influence of the planet than he originally recognized. He would have discovered also that the full story of Saturn adds a new perspective to much of the mythological material gathered in Worlds in Collision. (In this connection I must stress that I alone am responsible for the themes and conclusions presented in this book. Realizing that Velikovsky has had to defend his own heresy for better than a quarter of a century, I have no desire to burden him with the heresy of others.) Nothing came as a greater surprise to me than the sheer quantity of material bearing directly on the Saturn tradition. The scope of the subject matter made it necessary to separate the material into two volumes: the first dealing with the original Saturnian apparition, the second with Saturn’s catastrophic fate. This initial volume then, focuses on the primordial age of cosmic harmony and the unified image of Saturn as king of the world. —————————— II. The Great Father Anyone attempting to trace the Saturn legend must reckon with the primordial god-figure whom ancient races celebrate as “the great father,” and who is said to have first organized the heavens and founded the antediluvian kingdom of peace and plenty, the “Golden Age.” While few of us today could locate Saturn in the starry sphere, the earliest astral religions insist that the planet-god was once the all-powerful ruler of heaven. But paradoxically, they also declare that he resided on earth as a great king. He was the father both of gods and men. This dual character of the great father has been the subject of a centuries-long, but unresolved debate. Was he a living ancestor subsequently exaggerated into a cosmic divinity? Or was he originally a celestial god whom later myths reduced to human proportions? For an explanation of the great father researchers look to such varied powers as the solar orb, an esteemed tribal chief, or an abstract “vegetation cycle.” Almost uniformly ignored is the connection of the primordial man-god with the actual planet Saturn—even though it is precisely the latter that can tell us why the great father appears in both human and celestial form. The overwhelming preoccupation of ancient ritual is with an ancient “great god”: 1. The myths say that the god emerged alone from the cosmic sea as the preeminent power in the heavens. Out of watery chaos he produced a new order. The ancients worshipped him as the creator and the supreme lord of the Cosmos. 2. This solitary god, according to the legend, founded a kingdom of unparalleled splendour. He was the divine ancestor of all earthly rulers, his kingdom the prototype of the just and prosperous realm. Throughout his reign an unending spring prevailed, the land produced freely, and men knew neither labour nor war. 3. In the god-king’s towering form the ancients perceived the Heaven Man, a primordial giant whose body was the newly organized Cosmos. The legends often present the figure as the first man or “primordial man,” whose history personified the struggle of good and evil. 4. Whether emphasizing the great father’s character as creator, first king, or Heaven Man, widespread traditions proclaim him to be the planet Saturn. In investigating the traits of the archaic god we must give greatest weight to the oldest astral religions —those which are closest to the original experience. The best material, coming from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, provides a remarkably coherent picture of the god and enables one to see the development and the distortions of the idea among later peoples. What is most surprising, however, is the enduring power of the root themes. The “One God” Of Archaic Monotheism In the beginning the ancients knew one supreme god only, a divinity invoked as the creator and the father of all the gods. According to a long-established school of thought, man’s consciousness of a supreme being emerged slowly from a primitive fascination with petty spirits and demons. Adherents to this opinion tell us that human reason gradually modified capricious spirits of “vegetation,” “spring,” “the ancestors,” or “sexual power” into the great gods of global religion. Of such an evolutionary process, however, one finds little evidence. The great edifices erected by Herbert Spencer, E.B. Tylor, and James G. Frazer [4] appear to rest exclusively on the assumption that one can learn the origins of theism by studying existing primitive cultures. The idea is that the civilized races of old must have first passed through “primitive” phases. Before the Hebrews, Greeks, or Hindus developed their elevated ideas of a supreme god, they must have possessed beliefs and customs similar to those of modern-day tribes of Africa, Australia, or Polynesia. Only by slow development, say these theorists, could a race rise above the ludicrous magic, totems, and fetishes of the savage. It is interesting that the advocates of the various evolutionary theories, in their fascination with present-day primitive cultures, almost never concern themselves with the oldest religious texts and symbols which have come down to us. The sacred hymns and eulogies of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, reveal a tradition of a “great god” reaching back into prehistoric times. Moreover, a comparison of early and later sources, rather than suggesting a development, actually indicates the disintegration of a once-unified idea into magic, astrology, totemism, and other elements with which the evolutionists associate the “first stages” of religion. 1. Atum, the solitary god of beginnings. There are grounds for speaking of an archaic monotheism, astral in nature, existing long before the idea of God received its spiritual and philosophical elevation in Hebrew and Greek thought. To the ancients themselves the entire question was simply a matter of concrete history: the present world is a fragmented copy of an earlier age, in which the supreme light god stood alone in a primeval sea, occupying the cosmic centre. Ancient Egyptian texts repeatedly invoke a singular figure worshipped as the greatest and highest light of the primeval age. One of his many names was Atum, a god “born in the Abyss before the sky existed, before the earth existed.” [5] These are the words of the Pyramid Texts, perhaps the world’s oldest religious hymns, but the texts of all periods look back to the same primordial time when Atum shone forth alone. “I came into being of myself in the midst of the Primeval Waters,” states the god in the Book of the Dead. [6] More than once the Coffin Texts recall the time when Atum “was alone, before he had repeated himself.” [7] He “was alone in the Primeval Waters,” they say. [8] “I was [the spirit in?] the Primeval Waters, he who had no companion when my name came into existence. [9] Each locality in Egypt appears to have possessed its own special representative of the father god. [10] To some he was Horus, “the god who came first into being when no other god had yet come into existence, when no name of anything had yet been proclaimed.” [11] Other traditions knew him as Re, “the God One who came into being in the beginning of time . . . O thou who didst give Thyself birth! O one, mighty one of myriad forms and aspects, king of the world . . .” [12] The followers of Amen proclaimed their god “the Ancient of Heaven . . . , father of the gods. [13] “ Ptah was “the splendid god who existed alone in the beginning.” [14] The different local names of the primeval deity, though adding complexity to Egyptian religion as a whole, do not cloud the underlying idea. He is the “god One,” the “Only One,” the “father of beginnings,” the “Supreme Lord,” the singular god “except whom at the beginning none other existed.” [15] Surveying Egyptian religion one cannot fail to notice the priests’ obsession with the past—and their vivid portrait of the great god in his “first appearance.” Those who look for an unseen creator in early Egyptian religion will be disappointed. He is a visible and concrete power, the “lord of terror,” or “the great of terror.” [16] The memory of this solitary light god and creator was as old as the most ancient Egyptian ritual. His appearance—and eventual departure—shaped every aspect of the Egyptian world view. So also in Mesopotamia, about which Stephen Langdon raises the question of archaic monotheism. After prolonged study of Semitic and Sumerian sources, Langdon concludes that veneration of spirits and demons had nothing to do with the origins of Mesopotamian religion. Rather, “both in Sumerian and Semitic religions, monotheism preceded polytheism and belief in good and evil spirits.” [17] Langdon notes that on the pictographic tablets of the prehistoric period, the picture of a star repeatedly appears. The sign , he claims, is virtually the only religious symbol in the primitive period, and in the early Sumerian language this star symbol is the ideogram for writing “god,” “high,” “heaven,” and “bright.” It is also the ideogram of An, the oldest and loftiest of the Sumerian gods. An (or Anu) was the father of the gods and the central light at the universe summit, a god of “terrifying splendour” who governed heaven from his throne in the cosmic sea Apsu. But the Sumero-Babylonian pantheon is filled with competing figures of the primordial creator. Enki (or Ea), Ningirsu, Ninurta, Tammuzeach appears as a local formulation of the same great god. [18] Each shares in the character of the singular An, ruling as universal lord, fashioning his home above and radiating light in the midst of the celestial ocean. Here, as in Egypt, the god of archaic monotheism is not a transcendent spirit or invisible power, but a central light. A Sumerian epic to Ninurta proclaims, “Anu in the midst of Heaven gave him fearful splendour.” Ninurta, according to the text, is “like Anu,” and casts “a shadow of glory over the land.” [19] All Mesopotamian figures of the primeval god possess this tangible character, and accounts of the god’s radiant appearance are more of a historical than a speculative nature. Egyptian and Mesopotamian traditions of the solitary creator find many parallels in later Hebrew, Greek, Persian, Hindu, and Chinese mysticism and philosophy. But it is the earlier imagery which illuminates the later. And however unorthodox the idea may seem, the oldest records treat the great god’s birth in the deep and his acts of “creation” as events experienced by the ancestors. “Hearts were pervaded with fear, hearts were pervaded with terror when I was born in the abyss,” proclaims the god in the Pyramid Texts. [20] The solitary god, in the presence of the ancestors, brought forth the primeval world or “earth.” To understand the great god’s creation one must put aside modern philosophical and religious conceptions. The tradition has nothing to do with the origins of our planet or of the material universe. The subject of the original creation legend is the formation of the great god’s visible dwelling above. The legend records that when the creator rose from the cosmic sea a great band or revolving island congealed around the god as his home. The band appeared as a well-defined, organized, and geometrically unified dwelling—a celestial “land” fashioned by the great father. All space outside this enclosure belonged to unorganized Chaos. In a later section of this book I intend to show that ancient races the world over recorded pictures of the great god and his circular abode. The images were and (the second, more complete form showing streams of light radiating from the god to animate his “city of heaven”). The words which in the ancient languages denote this enclosure receive various translations as “heaven,” “cosmos,” “world,” “land,” “earth,” “netherland”—terms which take on vastly different meanings in modern usage. In their original sense the words signified one and the same thing: a band of light which appeared to set apart the “sacred ground” of the great god from the rest of space. (One cannot begin a survey of the great father without confronting his celestial enclosure, but a full discussion of this dwelling will be possible only after certain other aspects of the single god receive clarification. I mention the enclosure now in order to indicate the general, and unconventional, direction of this investigation. When texts cited in the following pages employ the terms “heaven,” “earth,” or “world” the reader should know that the usual interpretation will not be my interpretation.) Of the Egyptian Atum (or Re) I note these special characteristics: 1. Primeval Unity. Atum is the “One,” but also the “All.” Though he is the solitary god of beginnings, an assembly of lesser gods emanate from him and revolve in his company. These secondary deities, the paut or “circle” of the gods, constitute Atum’s own “limbs.” Atum’s body is the primeval Cosmos, [21] denoted by the circle in the sign 2. Regulator. Atum is the stationary god, the “Firm Heart of the Sky.” His hieroglyph, however, is the primitive sledge , signifying “to move.” As the central light or pivot, he imparts motion to (or “moves”) the heavens, while he himself remains em hetep, “at rest.” Directing the celestial motions (and the related cycles) he becomes the god of Time. [22] 3. The Word. The Egyptians recall Atum as the ancient Voice if heaven: The Word came into being. All things were mine when I was alone. I was Re [=Atum] in his first manifestations. The texts describe the god’s “first manifestations” [23] as the bringing forth of his companions (his “limbs”), which issue—or explode—from the god as his fiery “speech.” This circle of secondary divinities receives the name Khu, meaning “words of power,” but also “brilliant lights” or “glorious lights.” 4. Water God. A well-known chapter of Book of the Dead includes this description of Re: I am the Great God who created himself. Who is he? The Great God who created himself is the water it is the Abyss, the Father of the Gods. [24] The great god and the celestial oocean—“a lake of fire”—are fundamentally one. The waters issue from the god yet, paradoxically, give birth to him. 5. The Seed. Atum is the masculine power of heaven, the luminous Seed embodying all the elements of life (water, fire, air, etc.), which flow from him in streams of light. He is the universal source of fertility animating and impregnating the Cosmos. [25] What is most compelling about the portrait of Atum-Re is that numerous Egyptian divinities duplicate the image. The very traits of the great god, outlined above, are endlessly repeated in the figures of Osiris, Ptah, Horus, Khepera, and Ameneach of whom appears as the solitary god in the fiery sea; the god One who brought forth the company of gods as his own limbs; the god of the reverberating speech; the unmoving god producing the celestial revolutions; the final source of waters and the impregnating Seed of the Cosmos. [26] If we were to inquire of an Egyptian priest how he arrived at this notion of the supreme god, the priest would tell us that he did not “arrive” at the idea at all. The great god was a historical divinity, who ruled heaven for a time, then departed amid great upheavals. The hymns and ritual texts (the priest would say) simply record the incarnation of the god in the primordial era and recount the massive cataclysms which accompanied the collapse of that era. As the following sections will show, the general tradition is global and highly coherent. The Universal Monarch The same cosmic figure whom the oldest races knew as the creator and supreme god appears in the myths as a terrestrial king, reigning over the Golden Age. His rule was distinguished for its peace and abundance, and he governed not one land alone but the entire world, becoming the model of the good king. Every terrestrial ruler, according to the kingship rites, received his charisma and authority from this divine predecessor. No mythical figure remains more enigmatic than the great king to whom so many ancient peoples traced their ancestry. Who was Osiris, the legendary ruler who led the Egyptians out of barbarianism and reigned as king of the entire world? Who was Enki, whom the ancient Sumerians revered as the “universal lord” and founder of civilization? The same figure appears repeatedly as one passes to India, Greece, China, and the Americas. For the Hindus it was Yama; for the Greeks, Kronos; for the Chinese, Huang-ti. The Mexicans insisted that the white god Quetzalcoatl once ruled not only Mexico but all mankind. In North America the same idea attached to the primordial figure Manabozo. So vivid are the recollections of the Universal Monarch that his story usually forms the first chapter in the chronicles of kingship. And the kingship rites meticulously preserve a memory of the god-kings rule. Each stage in the inauguration of a new king reenacts the “first” king’s life and death. The rites take the initiated back to the beginning—to the mythical “creation.” An extraordinary theme emerges: In the original age of cosmic harmony and human innocence the gods dwelt on earth. Presiding over the epoch of peace and plenty was the Universal Monarch, who founded temples and cities and taught humanity the principles of agriculture, law, writing, music, and other civilized arts. This Golden Age, however, ended in the god-king’s catastrophic death. What is most puzzling to modern commentators is that the king of the world, “ruling on earth,” is at the same time the creator, the “god One.” How did the ancients come upon this paradoxical notion? The Age of Kronos Greek legends recall a remote and mysterious era of Kronos, the creator god who, wielding his sickle, ruled from the summit of Olympus. Eventually displaced by his own son, against whom he warred violently, Kronos seems to have appeared to the Greeks as a split personality, at once a radiant god— the very author of the world—and a dark, demonic power. But in an old tradition, with roots in earliest antiquity, Kronos is preeminently the good king, his darker side concealed. “First of all the deathless gods who dwell on Olympus made a golden race of mortal men who lived in the time of Kronos when he was reigning in heaven. And they lived like gods without sorrow of heart, remote and free from toil and grief: miserable age rested not on them . . . The fruitful earth unforced bare them fruit abundantly and without stint. They dwelt in ease and peace upon their lands with many good things, rich in flocks and loved by the blessed gods” [27] When Hesiod wrote these lines the Golden Age of Kronos was but a faint and often confused memory. To observe the antiquity of the idea one need only refer to the cradles of ancient civilization—Egypt and Mesopotamia. Among the Egyptians the father of the paradisal age possessed many names, but each tradition proclaimed the same original excellence of creation, subsequently corrupted. The peaceful epoch was distinctly the age of Kronos, under a different title. “Throughout their history the Egyptians believed in a time of perfection at the beginning of the world,” observes Clark. [28] In the earliest age, say the Egyptian sources, the great god was the first king, a ruler whose life served as a model for all succeeding ages. With the god-king Osiris the Egyptians constantly associated a vanished Golden Age. As king, Osiris, the “Beneficent Being,” taught his subjects to worship the gods, gave them the arts of civilization, and formulated the laws of justice. Founding sacred temples and cities and disseminating wisdom from one land to another, he became the benefactor of the whole world. [29] But his eventual murder brought world-wide destruction. Among classical writers (Herodotus, Diodorus, Plutarch) the idea prevailed that Osiris lived on our earth as a man or man-god. Egyptian sources, too, often portray him in human form. Yet the early religious texts say again and again that Osiris was the supreme light of heaven, ruling from the cosmic centre. He was, in fact, “the lord of the gods, god One.” [30] His body formed the Circle of the Tuat, the celestial residence of the gods. And the secondary gods themselves constituted the limbs of Osiris. [31] Indeed, the traditions of Osiris melt into those of Re, the “god One, who came into being in primeval time.” Just as Osiris’ followers remembered his rule on earth, so did other Egyptians recall the terrestrial reign of the Creator Re. To this age, states Lenormant, the Egyptians “continually looked back with regret and envy. To declare the superiority of one thing above all other things imaginable, it was enough to affirm, ‘its like had never been seen since the days of Re.’ [32] Re, the father of the gods, reigned over the terrestrial world, but wandered away when the heavens fell into disorder. “All chronological tradition affirms that Re had once ruled over Egypt,” writes Budge, “and it is a remarkable fact that every possessor of the throne of Egypt was proved by some means or other to have the blood of Re flowing in his veins . . .” [33] But the same belief applied to Horus, the god- king par excellence, as well as Atum, Khepera, Ptah, and Amen. The fact which must be explained is that the memory of the creator-king and his original age of abundance was far broader than any local tradition. And the story was not limited to Egypt. According to the theologian and historian Eusebius (who relates the account of the Babylonian priest-historian Berossus), the ancient tribes of Chaldea owed their civilization to a powerful and benevolent figure named Oannes, who ruled before the Deluge. Prior to Oannes, the tribes lived “without order, like the beasts.” But the new god-king, who issued from the sea, instructed mankind in writing and various arts, the formation of cities, and the founding of temples. “He also taught them the use of laws, of bounds and divisions, also the harvesting of grains and fruits, and in short all that pertains to the mollifying of life he delivered to men; and since that time nothing more has been invented by anybody.” [34] Oannes was simply the Greek name for the Babylonian Ea (the Sumerian Enki), worshipped in the city of Eridu at the mouth of the Euphrates. The tradition dates to the earliest stage of Sumerian history, a time when the myths say that Enki and his wife Damkina governed the lost paradise of Dilmun, the “pure place” of man’s genesis. They alone reposed in Dilmun; Where Enki and his wife reposed, That place was pure, that place was clean . . . In Dilmun the raven croaked not. The kite shrieked not kite-like. The lion mangled not. The wolf ravaged not the lambs. [35] The inhabitants of this paradise lived in a state of near perfection, drinking the waters of life and enjoying unbounded prosperity. Ruling over this favoured domain, Enki introduced civilization to mankind, founded the first cities and temples, and set down the first laws. If, in the account of Berossus, the bringer of civilization appears as a man (or part man, part fish), the earlier accounts call him the creator. His home was the cosmic sea Apsu, the celestial waters of “fire, rage, splendour and terror.” [36] The priests of Ea or Enki deemed him Mummu, the creative “Word.” Like the Egyptian creator, Enki brought forth the secondary gods through his own speech. Diverse localities worshipped the same cosmic power under different names. In the ancient city of Lagash the priests honoured the god Ninurta as the father of the paradisal age. Ninurta founded temples and cities; the years of his rule, connected with the beginning of the world, were “years of plenty.” Ninurta—scaled the mountain and scattered seed far and wide, And the plants with one accord named him as their king. [37] The Sumerians themselves knew that Ninurta was the same as the “vegetation god” Damuzi (or Tammuz), “son of the Apsu”—the shepherd of mankind whom classical mythology knew as Adonis and whose catastrophic departure or death became the focus of ritual lamentations for many hundreds of years. But Enki, Ninurta, and Damuzi were only aspects of the creator An, whose ideogram (as previously noted) appears as the earliest Mesopotamian sign of divinity. In all the myths and temple hymns, the Sumerians distinguish the present age from “that day,” or “the days of old,” when the gods “gave man abundance, the day when vegetation flourished.” [38] The supreme figure reigning over this remote age was AN, the central and highest light, whose foremost epithet was lugal, “king.” The Sumerians claimed that the very institution of kingship descended from “the heaven of An.” It was An who produced the beneficent age—“when the destiny was fixed for everything that was engendered (by An), when An engendered the year of abundance.” [39]