THE ROUTLEDGE LINGUISTICS ENCYCLOPEDIA The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia is a single- (cid:1) Optimality Theory volume encyclopedia covering all major and (cid:1) Research Methods in Linguistics subsidiary areas of linguistics and applied lin- (cid:1) Slang guistics.Theseventynineentriesprovidein-depth coverageofthetopicsandsub-topicsofthefield. Thefollowingentrieshavebeenrecommissioned Entries are alphabetically arranged and exten- orsubstantiallyrevised: sivelycross-referencedsothereadercanseehow Animals and Language, Artificial Languages, areas interrelate. Including a substantial intro- Computational Linguistics to Language Engi- duction which provides a potted history of lin- neering,ContrastiveAnalysis/ContrastiveLinguis- guistics and suggestions for further reading, this tics, Corpus Linguistics, Critical Discourse is an indispensable reference tool for specialists Analysis, Dialectology, Discourse Analysis, Dys- andnon-specialistsalike. lexia, Genre Analysis, Historical Linguistics, Into- Thisthirdeditionhasbeenthoroughlyrevised nation, Language and Education, Language, andupdated,withnewentrieson: Gender and Sexuality, Language Origins, Lan- guage Surveys, Language Universals, Linguistic (cid:1) Attitudes to Language Typology, Metaphor, Pragmatics, Rhetoric, (cid:1) Conversation Analysis Semantics, Semiotics, Sociolinguistics, Stylistics, (cid:1) English Language Teaching Systemic-FunctionalGrammar,WritingSystems. (cid:1) Gesture and Language (cid:1) Idioms (cid:1) Language and Advertising KirstenMalmkjærisProfessorofTranslation (cid:1) Language and New Technologies Studies and Literary Translation at Middlesex (cid:1) Linguistics in Schools University,UK. THE ROUTLEDGE LINGUISTICS ENCYCLOPEDIA THIRD EDITION Edited by Kirsten Malmkjær Firstpublished1995,secondedition2002 Thirdedition2010 byRoutledge 2ParkSquare,MiltonPark,Abingdon,OX144RN SimultaneouslypublishedintheUSAandCanada byRoutledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. ©1995,2002,2010KirstenMalmkjær All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any formorbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,nowknownorhereafterinvented, includingphotocopyingandrecording,orinanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystem, withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublishers. BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Acatalogrecordforthisbookhasbeenrequested ISBN 0-203-87495-1 Master e-book ISBN ISBN13: 978-0-415-42104-1 (hbk) ISBN13:978-0-203-87495-0(ebk) Contents List of entries vi Key to contributors viii Notes on contributors ix Preface xix Acknowledgements xx Introduction xxiii Entry A–Z 1 Bibliography 562 Index 651 List of entries Acoustic phonetics Generative semantics Animals and language Genre analysis Aphasia Gesture and language Applied linguistics Glossematics Articulatory phonetics Artificial languages Historical linguistics Attitudes to language: past, present and future History of grammar Auditory phonetics Idioms Behaviourist linguistics The International Phonetic Alphabet Bilingualism and multilingualism Interpretive semantics Intonation Cognitive linguistics From computational linguistics to natural Language acquisition language engineering Language and advertising Contrastive analysis/contrastive linguistics Language and education Conversation analysis Language and new technologies Corpus linguistics Language, gender and sexuality Creoles and pidgins Language origins Critical discourse analysis Language pathology and neurolinguistics Language surveys Dialectology Language universals Discourse analysis Lexicography Distinctive features Lexis and lexicology Dyslexia Linguistic relativity Linguistic typology English Language Teaching Linguistics in schools Forensic linguistics Metaphor Formal grammar Morphology Formal logic and modal logic Formal semantics Non-transformational grammar Functional phonology Functionalist linguistics Optimality theory Generative grammar Philosophy of language Generative phonology Phonemics Listofentries vii Port-Royal Grammar Sociolinguistics Pragmatics Speech-act theory Prosodic phonology Speech and language therapy Psycholinguistics Stratificational linguistics Stylistics Research methods in linguistics Systemic-functional grammar Rhetoric Semantics Text linguistics Semiotics Tone languages Sign language Slang Writing systems Key to contributors A.B. Aileen Bloomer J.P.B James P. Blevins A.d.V. Antonio de Velasco J.P.L. James P. Lantolf A.F. Anthony Fox J.R. Jonnie Robinson A.G. Angela Goddard J.S. Jakob Steensig A.M.R. Allan M. Ramsay K.H. Ken Hyland A.P.G. Andrew Peter Goatly K.M. Kirsten Malmkjær A.P.R.H. Tony Howatt K.O’H. Kieran O’Halloran B.A. Barbara Abbott L.J.R. Louise J. Ravelli B.C. Billy Clark L.P. Lucy Pickering B.D.J. Brian D. Joseph L.T.D.-R. Lynne T. Diaz-Rico C.B. Colin Baker M.A.G. Michael A. Garman C.H. Christopher Hookway M.B. Michael Burke C.L. Carmen Llamas M.C. Malcolm Coulthard C.M. Cornelia Müller M.J.M. Michael J. McCarthy C.-W.K. Chin-W. Kim M.K.C.M Michael K.C. MacMahon D.B. David Britain M.L. Michael Leff D.G.C. Daniel Glen Chandler M.L.J. Mary Lee Jensvold D.G.L. David G. Lockwood M.M. Molly Mack E.F.-J. Eli Fischer-Jørgensen M.T. Maggie Tallerman E.K.B. Keith Brown N.B. Nicola Brunswick F.J.N. Frederick J. Newmeyer P.S. Philippe Schlenker G.C. Guy Cook R.A.C. Ronald A. Carter G.N.L. Geoffrey N. Leech R.D. René Dirven G.P. Gill Philip R.F.I. Robert F. Ilson H.C.D. Hope C. Dawson R.K. Richard Kennaway H.G. Howard Giles S.C. Sonia Cristofaro H.H. Hilde Hasselgård S.Ed. Susan Edwards H.R. Henry Rogers S.Eh. Susan Ehrlich J.B. Jacques Bourquin S.S. Stef Slembrouck J.E. John Edwards T.A. Tsutomu Akamatsu J.F. John Field T.P. Teresa Parodi J.J.S. Jae Jung Song T.T. Tony Thorne J.M.A. James M. Anderson V.S.-L Vieri Samek-Lodovici J.N.W. John N. Williams W.S.-Y.W. William S.-Y. Wang Notes on contributors BarbaraAbbotttaughtlinguisticsandphilosophy addition to academic activities, Colin Baker has at Michigan State University from 1976 to 2006. heldtwogovernmentappointmentsasamemberof Her main areas of specialisation fall within the Assessment and Curriculum Council and the semantics,pragmaticsandphilosophy oflanguage. WelshLanguageBoard. Specific topics of interest include definiteness and indefiniteness, referential opacity, presuppositions, James P. Blevins received his Ph.D. from the natural kind terms and conditionals. Among her University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass., in publishedarticlesare‘NondescriptionalityandNat- 1990.HecurrentlyteachesintheResearchCentre uralKindTerms’,‘Models,Truth,andSemantics’, for English and Applied Linguistics at the Uni- ‘Water = H O’, ‘Presuppositions As Nonasser- versityofCambridge.Hisresearchinterestsinclude 2 tions’,‘DonkeyDemonstratives’,and‘Conditionals syntax, morphosyntax, computational linguistics inEnglishandFirstOrderPredicateLogic’. andthehistoryoflinguistics. TsutomuAkamatsustudiedModernLanguagesat Aileen Bloomer was Principal Lecturer at York TokyoUniversityofForeignStudies,Phoneticsatthe St John University having previously worked in UniversityofLondonandGeneralLinguisticsatthe Warwick,Sweden,Germany,VietnamandChina. University of Paris. He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Leeds, where he was a lecturer in the JacquesBourquin,Docteurèssciences,Docteur Department of Linguistics and Phonetics. He is a ès lettres, is Professor of French Linguistics at the memberoftheSociétéInternationaledeLinguistique University of Franche-Comté, Besançon, France. Fonctionnelle(SILF)andhaspublishedmorethan100 Hehaswrittenathesisentitled‘LaDérivationsuf- articles in linguistics journals. His other publications fixale (théorie et enseignement) au XIXe siècle’, includeTheTheoryofNeutralizationandtheArchiphonemein plusseveralarticlesontheproblemofreadingand FunctionalPhonology(1988),EssentialsofFunctionalPhonol- ontheepistemologyoflinguistics. ogy (1992), Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice (1997) andJapanesePhonology:AFunctionalApproach(2000). David Britain is Professor of Modern English LinguisticsattheUniversityofBerninSwitzerland, Colin Baker is Professor of Education at the having previously worked in the Department of University of Wales, Bangor. He is the author of Linguistics at Victoria University of Wellington in fifteen books and over fifty articles on bilingualism NewZealand(1991–93)andintheDepartmentof and bilingual education. His Foundations of Bilingual LanguageandLinguisticsattheUniversityofEssex Education and Bilingualism (2006, 4th edn) has sold in England (1993–2009). Hehas editedLanguage in over 50,000 copies and has been translated into the British Isles (2007, Cambridge University Press) Japanese, Spanish, Latvian, Greek, Vietnamese and, with Jenny Cheshire, Social Dialectology (2003, and Mandarin. His Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Benjamins), as well as co-authored Linguistics: An Bilingual Education (with S.P. Jones) won the British Introduction (2009, 2nd edn, Cambridge University Association for Applied Linguistics Book Prize Press)withhisformercolleaguesAndrewRadford, Award for 1999. He is Editor of the International Martin Atkinson, Harald Clahsen and Andrew JournalofBilingualismandBilingualEducationandalso Spencer.HeiscurrentlyanAssociateEditorofthe edits two Book Series for Multilingual Matters. In Journal of Sociolinguistics. His research interests lie in