The Roman Army: the Civil Wars 88-31 BC MountPangacus Triumvirs' Brutus' -_~:p *~' _..___.. D. : Philippi r 0 I • :caSSIus' :camp ABOUT THE AUTHOR NIC FIELDSstarted hiscareerasabiochemistbeforejoiningtheRoyal Marines.Having leftthemilitary,hewentbackto universityand completeda BAand PhDinAncientHistoryattheUniversityofNewcastle.HewasAssistant Directoratthe British SchoolatAthens,Greece,andthen alecturerinAncient HistoryattheUniversityofEdinburgh.Nicisnowafreelanceauthorand researcherbased in south-westFrance. Battle Orders • 34 The Roman Army: the Civil Wars 88-31 BC Nic Fields Consultant editor Dr Duncan Anderson • Series editors Marcus Cowperand Nikolai Bogdanovic FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin2008byOspreyPublishing, Key to first names (praenomeninis) MidlandHouse,WestWay,Botley,OxfordOX2OPH,UK 443ParkAvenueSouth,NewYork,NY 10016,USA A. Aulus M'. Manius E-mail:[email protected] Ap. Appius P. Publius C. Caius Q. Quintus ©2008OspreyPublishingLtd. Cn. Cnaeus Ser. Servius Allrightsreserved.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofprivatestudy, D. Decimus Sex. Sextus research,criticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatents L. Lucius Sp. Spurius Act,1988,nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem, M. Marcus T. Titus ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,electrical,chemical,mechanical, Mam. Mamius Ti. Tiberius optical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionof thecopyrightowner.EnquiriesshouldbeaddressedtothePublishers. Abbreviations AC1PcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978 I846032622 AE L'Anneet.pigraphique (Paris, /888-) BMC,R.Rep. H.A.Grueber,Coinsofthe Roman Republicinthe PagelayoutbyBounford.com,Cambridge,UK BritishMuseum (London, 1910,repro /970) MapsbyBounford.com,Cambridge,UK Crawford M.H.Crawford,Roman RepublicanCoinage,2vol. IndexbySandraShotter (Cambridge, 1974) TypesetinMonotypeGillSansandITCStoneSerif CIL T.Mommsenetal.,Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum OriginatedbyPPSGrasmere,Leeds,UK PrintedinChinathroughBookbuilders (Berlin, 1862-) ILS H.Dessau,Inscriptiones Latinae Se/ectae (Berlin, 08 09 I0 II I2 I0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I 1892-1916) FORACATALOGUEOFALLBOOKSPUBLISHEDBYOSPREYMILITARYAND AVIATIONPLEASECONTACT: NORTHAMERICA OspreyDirect,c/oRandomHouseDistributionCenter,400HahnRoad,Westminster, MD21157 E-mail:[email protected] ALLOTHERREGIONS OspreyDirectUK,P.O.Box140Wellingborough,Northants,NN82FA,UK E-mail:[email protected] OspreyPublishingissupportingtheWoodlandTrust,theUK'sleadingwoodland conservationcharity,byfundingthededicationoftrees. Keytomilitarysymbols xxxx xxx X III 0 0 0 0 Proconsular Consular Legio Cohors army army I •• 0 0 cgJ ~ Centuria Contubernium Infantry Cavalry O(-l O(+l Unitwithpart Reinforced detached unit KeytounIitZidenItification Unit Parent identifier unit Commander Contents Introduction 4 Roman military organization 6 Legion •Auxiliaries •Cavalry Weapons and equipment 18 Legionaries •Auxiliaries •Cavalry Command and control 28 Legion command •Centuriate•Juniorofficers •Commandand control inaction The Roman Army in battle 36 Romantactical doctrineand practice • Legion •Auxiliaries •Cavalry Engineering 43 Marchingand permanentcamps • Roads and bridges •Siegeworks The civil wars 50 Pharsalus,Pompeyversus Caesar•Thapsus,the republican sunset Philippi,thefinal bout•Actium,Antoniusversus Octavianus Poets, propaganda and absolute power 80 Chronology 82 Ancient authors 85 Appian (b.AD95) •Cassius Dio (b.AD 164)• Plutarch (c.AD46-120) •Suetonius (b.c.AD 70) The Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus 89 Bibliography 90 Glossary 92 Legionary titles 94 Index 95 3 Introduction War defined ancient Rome, so much so that no social or political aspect was divorced from events on the field ofbattle. Rome's expansion in the 3rd and 2nd centuries Be from an Italian city-state to the superpower of the Mediterranean world had been under its traditional form ofgovernment. Yet the overseas conquests led to a change in mentalityamongthe ruling elite. The orator and politician Cicero, a contemporary of Caesar, reckons 'there are two skills that can raise men to the highest level ofdignitas (honour): one is that ofgeneral, the secondthat ofa good orator' (Pro Murena 30). Yetitwas serviceinthe armyratherthan a careerinthe courts, Cicero continues, which conferredthegreatestpersonalstatus. Cicero, amannotknownforhismilitary inclinations, appreciatedtheharshrealitythattherewasmoreglorytobewon byextendingtheempirethanbyadministeringit. Moreover, succeedinginthe arena of political life was an expensive business, but a foreign war offered unparalleledopportunitiesforwinninggloryandforenrichingselfandstateat one and the same time. LegionariesontheAltarof DomitiusAhenobarbus (Paris, Museedu Louvre,Ma975).For manyrecruits enlistmentinthe armywasan attractiveoption, promisingadequatefood and shelter,acash incomeand ahope ofsomethingmore both during theirserviceand ontheirformal retirement.(Fields-Carre 4 Collection) Yetthe spectacularsums ofwealthbroughtinto Rome byits conquests and the opportunitiesandtemptationsofferedbyits empire putintolerable strains on the political and social system that had been adequate for a modest city state. As a result senatorial solidarity, which had made Rome a superpower, gave way to individualism. Increasingly, generals who had achieved stunning military successes began to act on the basis of self-interest, keen as they were on acquiring great personal power. The repercussions of this are not hard to guess. Internal rivalries began to emerge, leading to a power struggle thatwas fought out during the 1st century Be. Sulla and Marius, Pompey and Caesar, Marcus Antonius and Octavianus, these were to be the leading players in the civilwars ofthe dying Republic. It was the first of these republican warlords who was the first to march on Romewithhisseasonedveterans,whilethelastwouldemergevictoriousasthe first Roman emperor, Augustus. Yet itwas with Marius that the precedentwas setwherebysoldiers- nowvolunteers invariablyfrom the lowest social class looked to their own generals rather than the state for the rewards of service, particularly the all-important provision on retirement. Simultaneously, the generals lookedto their own soldiers to supportthem in politics. When Sullawas on the point ofreturning to Italy to march on Rome for a second time, he bound his troops to him by a personal oath, 'promising to standbyhimandtodonodamageinItalyexceptbyhisorders' (PlutarchSulla 27.4). The insistence ofthe republican military oath, the sacramentum, 'never to leavetheranksbecauseoffear orto run away' (Livy22.38.4) nowtookona more sinister overtone as its ancestral formula was neutered by various warlordstosuittheirprivatepoliticalplans. InthiswaySulla'sopponentCinna invoked a personal sacramentum on losing his consular authority. At once the militarytribunes 'swore the military oath to him, and each administered it to hisownsoldiers' (AppianBellumcivilia 1.66). InIberia, some 35yearslater, the Pompeian general M. Petreius, sensing that many ofhis soldiers were keen to gooverto Caesar, 'extractedanoathfrom themthattheywouldnotdesertthe army and its leader [Le. Pompey] and that theywould not act individually in their own interests, abandoning the others' (Caesar Bellum civile 1.76.2). Petreius bound himself with the oath first and compelled his fellow commander L. Afranius to follow suit, then the military tribunes and centurions, and last the soldiers century by century. Again the traditional sacramentum was adapted to suit the immediate crisis, thereby expressing the personalloyaltybetween general and soldiers. 5 Roman military organization CaiusMarius, who held anunprecedented series ofconsulshipsduringthelast decadeofthe 2ndcenturyBe, andwho defeatedIugurthaofNumidiaandlater the much more serious threat to Italy from migrating Germanic tribes, the CimbriandtheTeutones, hasoftenbeencreditedwithtakingthedecisivesteps that laid the basis for the professional standing army ofthe Principate. Rome was now the dominant power in the Mediterranean basin and the annual levyingofwhatwas in effect apart-time citizen militiawas incompatiblewith the running and maintenance of a world empire. Moreover, decades of war overseashadturnedoutthousandsoftrainedsoldiersandmanyofthemwould have found themselves strangers to civilian life after their years of service abroad. The army had been their life and Marius called them back home. But besides these time-expired veterans, Marius also enrolled another more numerous kind ofvolunteer: the men with nothing. Those Roman citizenswho did notbelongto the five Servianclasses, that is, those who could not declare to the censors the minimum census qualification of owning property above the value of 11,000 asses for Soldiers no longerprovided their own equipment,instead beingissued with standardweapons,armourand clothingbythestate.Thedifferences betweenthevarious property classes inthe legionvanished,as did velitesand equites.All legionaries were nowheavyinfantry,armed alikewith scutum,pi/umandgladius. 6 (Fields-Carre Collection) enrolment in Class V, were excluded from military service. Lacking the means to provide themselves arms, these citizens were listed in the census simplyasthecapitecensi, the 'headcount'. However, Mariuswasnotcontent to supplementhis armyfor theAfricancampaignbyonlydrawingupon 'the bravest soldiers from the Latin towns' (Sallust Bellum Iugurthinum 84.2). Thus ofall the reforms attributed to Marius, the opening ofthe ranks to the capite censi in 107 Be has obviously attracted the most attention, and the unanimous disapproval of ancient writers (Sallust Bellum Iugurthinum 86.2, Plutarch Marius 9.1, Florus 1.36.13). And so Marius, a novus homo from a when hekilledan enemywarriorin Ambrones lefttheircampto helptheir singlecombat- and infull viewofScipio comradesatthewater's edge,andsome Aemilianus.Foraman ofrelatively contingentsofsociiand Romanswent humbleorigins itmusthave lookedas downthe hillto meetthem asthey ifthefuture belongedto him,unless his splashedacrossthestream.Plutarch says rivals devoured himfirst. (Morius 20.1) thattheAmbronessuffered Mariusturned outto bean able asignificantdefeat,buthe mayhave commanderwho,though lackingthe exaggeratedasthe largerand decisive brilliance ofCaesar,understood the engagementwasfoughttwo days later. basic requirementsfor agood army Thisscuffle,however,meantthe weretraining,discipline and leadership. Romanswere unableto completetheir When,for instance,he conditioned his fortifications before nightfall.Theystill armyto meetthe Germanictribes heldthe heightswherethe half-finished therewere long route marches,each camplay,andtheenemyhad retired,but man carrying hisgearand preparing his thesecuritythesoldierswere own meals.Moreacommon soldier accustomedto- and uponwhichthe than an aristocraticgeneral,inAfrica he commanderreliedto keep his men had'won the affection ofthe soldiers rested and confident- was notthere. byshowinghe could liveas hard asthey Fortunatelyfor Mariustherewas no did and endureas much' (Plutarch attackduringthe night.Theenemy Morius7.5). evidentlyhad had enoughfightingduring Asageneral Marius relied mainlyon theengagementatthestream,andthey surpriseand alwaysshowedareluctance spentthe nextdayorderingthemselves to engageinatraditional,set-piecefight. forabattle.Mariusdid likewise,puttinga CaiusMarius(157-86 Be) Hepreferredtodeterminethetimeand numberofcohorts,perhapsfive orsix In manywaysthespectacularcareerof placeandwould notbe hurried.Such theyaresaidto have numbered 3,000 Mariuswasto provideamodelforthe was hisvictoryatAquaeSextiae(Aix-en men inall- underalegateofhis,M. greatwarlordsofthe lastdecadesofthe Provence).HavingdoggedtheTeutones Claudius Marcellus,and ordered himto Republic.Hecamefrom the local andAmbronessincetheycrossedthe slip intoawooded areanearbyand hold aristocracy,dominobiles,ofthecentral Rhone,Marius moved intothevicinity himselfthroughthe nightin preparation Italian hill-town ofArpinum (Arpino), ofthe Roman colony.Atthe endofthe for battlethefollowingday. which had received Roman citizenship day's march,Marius begantoestablisha The balanceofthearmy Marius led only31 years beforehis birth.In 107BC, marchingcampon highground outthe nextdayonthe heightbefore justshyofhis50th birthday,Marius overlookingastream.Followingthe thecamp,sendinghis cavalryoutahead becameconsul,which provedtothefirst usual orderofthings,the legionaries to skirmish withtheenemyand provoke ofseven,morethananyman had held would have been doingthe manualwork them intoaction.We do notknowthe before.Itwas notsimplythe number underthedirection oftheircenturions disposition ofthe legionaries,though itis thatwas unprecedented,butthe nature, whiletheauxiliariesand cavalrystood assumedthattheywereformed up in forfivewereto be held inconsecutive readytodriveoffanyattack. theconventionaltriplexocies.The years between 104BCand 100BC,whilst Asthesoldiers laboured,servantsand TeutonesandAmbronesattacked uphill, theseventh hewastoseize,as hehad slaveswentdown slopetothestreamto were metand contained,and driven taken Romeitself,witharmedforce in fetch water.Theywentarmed ofcourse, slowlydowntheslopebythe legionaries 86BC withswordswith axesandwith spears, andthen,whilefullyengaged,were Mariuswas bynatureasoldier;much sincetheGermaniccamp layjustacross struckfrom behind byMarcellus' in his laterlifewouldshowit,and he had thestreamand someoftheenemywere cohorts emergingfrom thewoods. began his longmilitarycareerasa down atthewaterthemselves.Itmay Theenemy,caughtbetweentwoforces, cavalryofficer,servingwith distinction nothavebeen unusualforopponents dissolved andwere utterlydefeated. underP.CorneliusScipioAemilianus (cos. to meeteach otherundersuch TheTeutonesandtheAmbroneswere 147BC,cos.II 134BC),thegreatest circumstances,each sidetacitlyputting finished asathreatto Rome. Roman ofhisgeneration,inthe upwiththeotherso longastheycould NumantineWar(134-132 BC).Marius keepapart;howeversometimesafight wastoenhance his reputationthere would eruptas happenedthis day.The 7 Replica Roman standardson display family that had never before held the consulship, stands accused of paving inthe Romische-Germanische the way for the so-called lawless, greedy soldiery whose activities were Zentralmuseum,Mainz.Thesewere thought to have contributed largely to the fall of the Republic a few the painstakingworkofDrLudwig generations later. Lindenschmidt,a 19th-century YetweshouldnotlosesightofthefactthatMariuswasnotthefirsttoenrol pioneerin Roman experimental the capitecensi. Attimes ofextreme crisis inthe pastthe Senatehadimpressed archaeology.From leftto right,an aquila,avexillum andtwosigna,all of them, along with convicts and slaves, for service as legionaries. In the which arefirmly based on sculptural aftermath of the crushing defeats at the Trebbia (218 BC), Lake Trasimene reliefsand archaeologicalfinds. (217 BC) and Cannae (216 BC), the Senate made the first of a number of (AncientArt&Architecture) alterations to the Servianconstitution. In the dark days following Cannae, for instance, two legions were enlisted from slave-volunteers (Livy 22.57.11, 23.32.1). Mariuswas merelycarryingone stagefurther aprocessvisible during the 2nd centuryBC, bywhich the prescribed property qualification for service in the army was eroded and became less meaningful. Now the only real prerequisiteswere Roman citizenship and awillingness to go soldiering. Noticeably the ancient sources, unlike modern commentators, do not say that Marius swept away the qualification, or changed the law on eligibility. On the contrary, he merelyappealed to the capitecensifor volunteers, whom he could equip from state funds under the legislation drawn up by Caius Gracchus in 123 BC, by which the state was responsible for equipping the soldier fighting in its defence (Plutarch Caius Gracchus 5.1). Even before 8 Gracchus' lex militaria, there had been a progressive debasement of the