THE ROLE OF SOCCER IN THE ADJUSTMENT OF IMMIGRANTS TO AUSTRALIA: A SOUTH AUSTRALIAN CASE STUDY 1947 TO 2013 JUSTIN PETER CIVITILLO BSocSc, BA (Honours) Discipline of Geography, Environment and Population Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences The University of Adelaide South Australia Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2014 ii   TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page ........................................................................................................................ i Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... ii List of Tables ............................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ............................................................................................................ viii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... x Declaration .................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... xii Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Aims and Objectives ...................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Immigration to Australia ............................................................................................... 4 1.3.1  Background  .....................................................................................................................................  4   1.3.2  Postwar  immigration  to  Australia  ........................................................................................  5   1.3.3  Permanent  settlement  and  issues  of  adjustment  ...........................................................  7   1.4 Sport in Australia ........................................................................................................... 8 1.4.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 8   1.4.2  Sport  and  Australian  identity ................................................................................. 9 1.4.3  ‘Australian’  sports ................................................................................................. 10 1.4.4  Sport  and  immigrants ........................................................................................... 12 1.4.5  Soccer  or  football? ................................................................................................. 13 1.5 Concepts and Definitions ............................................................................................. 13 1.5.1 Ethnicity .................................................................................................................. 13 1.5.2 Ethnic enclave ......................................................................................................... 15 1.5.3 Cultural pluralism ................................................................................................... 18 1.5.4 Ethnic identity ......................................................................................................... 18 1.5.5 Social capital ........................................................................................................... 20 1.6 Theoretical Perspectives .............................................................................................. 22 1.6.1 Immigrant adjustment ............................................................................................. 22 1.6.2 Classic assimilation ................................................................................................. 23 1.6.3 Ethnic disadvantage ................................................................................................ 25 1.6.4 Segmented assimilation .......................................................................................... 26 1.6.5 Other models of assimilation .................................................................................. 28 1.6.6 Settlement policy models ........................................................................................ 29 1.6.7 Assimilation ............................................................................................................ 29 1.6.8 Acculturation .......................................................................................................... 30 1.6.9 Multiculturalism ...................................................................................................... 31 1.6.10 Two-way integration ............................................................................................. 33 1.6.11 Segregation ........................................................................................................... 34 1.7 Thesis Structure ........................................................................................................... 35 1.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 36 iii   Chapter 2: The Sociological Impacts of Sport ........................................................ 37 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 37 2.2 Research on the Sociological Impacts of Sport .......................................................... 38 2.2.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 38 2.2.2 Sport and geography ............................................................................................... 39 2.2.3 Sport and national identity ...................................................................................... 40 2.2.4 Soccer and national identity .................................................................................... 42 2.2.5 Sport and local identity ........................................................................................... 44 2.2.6 Sport as a divisive social force ............................................................................... 46 2.2.7 Sport and immigrant settlement .............................................................................. 49 2.3 The Sociological Impacts of Sport in Australia ......................................................... 50 2.3.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 50 2.3.2 Cricket and Australian nationalism ......................................................................... 51 2.3.3 Sport and inequality in Australia ............................................................................ 53 2.4 Sport in Australian Settlement Literature ................................................................. 55 2.5 Sport in Global Settlement Literature ....................................................................... 63 2.5.1 Overview ................................................................................................................. 63 2.5.2 Case studies ............................................................................................................. 65 2.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 67 Chapter 3: Immigrants and Soccer .......................................................................... 69 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 69 3.2 Research on Immigrants and Soccer in Australia .................................................... 69 3.2.1 Overview ................................................................................................................. 69 3.2.2 Soccer as a divisive force ........................................................................................ 70 3.2.3 Soccer and ethnic identity ....................................................................................... 75 3.2.4 Soccer as a source of social capital ......................................................................... 79 3.2.5 Biographical accounts of immigrant participation in soccer .................................. 80 3.3 Research on Immigrants and Soccer in Other Nations ............................................ 84 3.3.1 Overview ................................................................................................................. 84 3.3.2 Soccer as an ‘immigrant sport’ ............................................................................... 84 3.3.3 Soccer as a source of social capital ......................................................................... 86 3.3.4 Soccer and cultural maintenance ............................................................................ 88 3.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 91 Chapter 4: Postwar Immigration to Australia ........................................................ 93 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 93 4.2 Post Second World War Immigration to Australia .................................................. 93 4.2.1 A British nation ....................................................................................................... 93 4.2.2 Postwar arrivals from mainland Europe ................................................................. 95 4.2.3 End of the White Australia Policy .......................................................................... 98 4.2.4 Rise of Asian, African and Middle Eastern settlement ......................................... 100 4.2.5 Rise of temporary settlement ................................................................................ 103 4.3 Government Immigrant Settlement Policy .............................................................. 105 4.3.1 Assimilation .......................................................................................................... 105 4.3.2 Resisting assimilation ........................................................................................... 106 4.3.3 Multiculturalism .................................................................................................... 109 4.3.4 Attacks on multiculturalism .................................................................................. 111 4.3.5 Changing attitudes towards CALD immigration .................................................. 113 4.3.6 Implications of the study for settlement policy .................................................... 116 4.4 Study Area: Adelaide, South Australia .................................................................... 117 4.4.1 South Australian context ....................................................................................... 117 4.4.2 Adelaide context ................................................................................................... 119 4.4.3 Second generation ................................................................................................. 124 iv   4.4.4 Current trends ....................................................................................................... 126 4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 129 Chapter 5: Soccer and Immigrants in Australia ................................................... 131 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 131 5.2 British Immigrant Origins of Australian Soccer (1880-1947) ................................ 134 5.2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 134 5.2.2 First appearance of soccer in Australia ................................................................. 135 5.2.3 Soccer: the immigrant game ................................................................................. 136 5.2.4 Global expansion of soccer ................................................................................... 138 5.2.5 CALD immigrant soccer players and clubs .......................................................... 139 5.3 The Impact of European Immigration on Soccer (1947-1963) .............................. 143 5.3.1 European immigrants and the growth of soccer ................................................... 143 5.3.2 Perceptions of soccer by Australian natives ......................................................... 145 5.3.3 New South Wales’ immigrant soccer revolution (1957-1959) ............................. 146 5.3.4 Expulsion from FIFA and readmission (1960-1963) ............................................ 149 5.4 The Socceroos and the National Soccer League (1964-Present) ............................ 151 5.4.1 Background ........................................................................................................... 151 5.4.2 FIFA World Cup finals (1965-1976) .................................................................... 151 5.4.3 National Soccer League (1977-1988) ................................................................... 154 5.4.4 Moving into the Mainstream (1989-2004) ............................................................ 155 5.4.5 Moving into Asia (2005-present) .......................................................................... 158 5.4.6 CALD immigrant legacy (2005-present) .............................................................. 159 5.4.7 CALD immigrant club chronology ....................................................................... 163 5.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 166 Chapter 6: Research Methodology ......................................................................... 168 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 168 6.2 Methodological Approach ......................................................................................... 168 6.2.1 Quantitative and qualitative research .................................................................... 168 6.2.2 Multi-strategy research ......................................................................................... 169 6.2.3 Probability and non-probability sampling ............................................................ 171 6.2.4 Purposive sampling ............................................................................................... 172 6.2.5 Snowball sampling ................................................................................................ 173 6.2.6 Secondary data ...................................................................................................... 174 6.3 Study Design ............................................................................................................... 175 6.4 Survey of Immigrants Questionnaire ....................................................................... 177 6.4.1 Survey overview ................................................................................................... 177 6.4.2 Target population .................................................................................................. 177 6.4.3 Survey location and sampling strategy ................................................................. 178 6.4.4 Questionnaire ........................................................................................................ 180 6.4.5 Pilot study ............................................................................................................. 187 6.4.6 Fieldwork .............................................................................................................. 187 6.5 In-depth Interviews .................................................................................................... 188 6.6 Limitations and Biases of the Study ......................................................................... 191 6.7 Difficulties Experienced in Conducting Fieldwork ................................................. 192 6.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 194 Chapter 7: Characteristics of Soccer Participants ............................................... 195 7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 195 7.2 Demographic Characteristics .................................................................................... 196 7.2.1 Age and sex ........................................................................................................... 196 7.2.2 Education .............................................................................................................. 197 7.2.3 Residential location ............................................................................................... 198 v   7.2.4 Generational distribution ...................................................................................... 199 7.2.5 Occupation ............................................................................................................ 201 7.2.6 Language ............................................................................................................... 201 7.3 Ethnic Identity ............................................................................................................ 202 7.3.1 Identity in Australian multiculturalism ................................................................. 202 7.3.2 Ethnicity of family ................................................................................................ 203 7.3.3 Ethnicity by immigrant generation ....................................................................... 204 7.3.4 Connection to ethnic identity ................................................................................ 205 7.3.5 Ethnic identity of parents ...................................................................................... 209 7.4 Patterns of Social Interaction .................................................................................... 211 7.4.1 Ethnicity of friends ............................................................................................... 211 7.4.2 Frequency of social interaction within ethnic group ............................................ 213 7.4.3 Ethnicity of partners .............................................................................................. 214 7.5 Cultural Maintenance ................................................................................................ 214 7.5.1 Influence of parents on cultural maintenance ....................................................... 214 7.5.2 Attitude towards ‘Australianness’ ........................................................................ 218 7.5.3 Contact with family overseas ................................................................................ 219 7.5.4 Ethnic club membership ....................................................................................... 220 7.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 221 Chapter 8: Sport, Immigrant Adjustment and Cultural Maintenance .............. 224 8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 224 8.2 The Role of Sport in the Adjustment of Immigrants to Australia ......................... 225 8.2.1 Soccer and immigrants in Australia ...................................................................... 225 8.2.2 Soccer clubs and social capital ............................................................................. 227 8.2.3 Bridging social capital .......................................................................................... 230 8.2.4 Two-way integration ............................................................................................. 233 8.2.5 Soccer’s role in immigrant adjustment ................................................................. 235 8.2.6 Impact of soccer on the adjustment of female immigrants ................................... 238 8.2.7 Key themes ........................................................................................................... 241 8.3 The Influence of Soccer Clubs on Cultural Maintenance ...................................... 243 8.3.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 243 8.3.2 Negative perceptions of soccer ............................................................................. 244 8.3.3 Soccer clubs and cultural mainteance ................................................................... 246 8.3.4 Respondent participation in ‘ethnic’ soccer clubs ................................................ 249 8.3.5 Key themes ........................................................................................................... 251 8.4 Sport and Recent Arrivals ......................................................................................... 252 8.4.1 Reports on recent arrivals and sport ..................................................................... 252 8.4.2 Asian, African and Middle Eastern immigrant participation in soccer ................ 255 8.4.3 Unstructured participation in soccer ..................................................................... 259 8.4.4 Gender ................................................................................................................... 262 8.4.5 Other sport ............................................................................................................ 263 8.4.6 Key themes ........................................................................................................... 266 8.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 267 Chapter 9: Implications and Conclusions ............................................................. 270 9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 270 9.2 Sport and the Adjustment of Immigrants ................................................................ 270 9.3 Influence on Cultural Maintenance .......................................................................... 273 9.4 The Impact of Sport on the Adjustment of Recent Immigrants ............................ 274 9.5 Theoretical Implications ............................................................................................ 277 9.6 Policy Implications and Recommendations ............................................................. 280 9.6.1 Implications for national government policy ........................................................ 280 9.6.2 Recommendations for the national government ................................................... 283 vi   9.7 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research ................................................ 288 9.7.1 Co-operation of clubs and organisations .............................................................. 288 9.7.2 Data limitations ..................................................................................................... 289 9.7.3 Social impact of sports participation on female immigrants ................................ 290 9.7.4 Social impact of sports participation on temporary immigrants ........................... 291 9.7.5 Social impact of sports participation on other minorities ..................................... 291 9.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 292 10: Appendices ......................................................................................................... 293 10.1 Example of Questionnaire (Final Version) ............................................................ 293 10.2 Participant Information Sheet ................................................................................ 307 10.3 Example of Letter Sent to Soccer Clubs ................................................................ 309 10.4 First Letter to Governing Body of Soccer .............................................................. 311 10.5 Second Letter to Governing Body of Soccer .......................................................... 313 10.6 Response from Governing Body of Soccer ............................................................. 315 11: Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 317 vii   LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Composition of the Australian Population by Place of Birth, 1947 and 2011 .......... 6 Table 1.2: Participants in Selected Ball Sports, Australia, 2011-12 ........................................ 11 Table 4.1: Australian Population by Region of Birth, 1947 ..................................................... 94 Table 4.2: Ethnic Strength of Australian Population, 1947 ...................................................... 94 Table 4.3: Change in the Percentage Distribution of the South Australian Population by Place of Birth, 1947 to 2011 (Census years) .................................................................................... 117 Table 4.4: South Australia – Ten Largest Overseas Born Populations of Metropolitan Area, 1966 ........................................................................................................................................ 120 Table 4.5: South Australia – Components of Population Change, 2005-06 to 2011-12 ........ 126 Table 4.6: Permanent Skilled Settler Arrivals to South Australia, 2001-02 to 2010-11 ........ 127 Table 4.7: Permanent Humanitarian Settler Arrivals to South Australia and Australia, 2001-02 to 2010-11 ............................................................................................................................... 128 Table 5.1: Estimated Number of Soccer Players and Officials Globally, 2000 and 2006 ..... 131 Table 5.2: Average Home Match Attendances for Highest Level of Football Codes by State, 2013 Regular Season (2012-13 Regular Season for A-League) ............................................ 133 Table 5.3: Participation (000s) in Football Codes and Cricket by State, 2005-06 ................. 134 Table 5.4: Mainland Europe-born Males Aged 15-44, Australia 1954 Census ..................... 143 Table 5.5: Non-British and Irish Europe-born Populations of Australian States and Territories, 1954 ........................................................................................................................................ 147 Table 5.6: Origin of Participating Clubs in the 1977 NSL Season ........................................ 154 Table 5.7: Roster of Adelaide United in 2013-14 with International Eligibility .................... 159 Table 5.8: Summary Model – Postwar Australian Immigration and Soccer .......................... 166 Table 6.1: Distribution of Structured Survey and Response Rates ........................................ 179 Table 6.2: A List of Key Informants and their Position(s) Held ............................................ 189 Table 8.1: Major Benefits of Participation in Soccer Clubs for CALD Immigrants .............. 242 Table 8.2: South Australian National Premier League Ladder, 2013 Season ........................ 250 viii   LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Most Popular Sports Watched by Australians (14+; ‘almost always’ or ‘occasionally’) on TV, October 2010 to September 2011 ........................................................ 11 Figure 3.1: Timeline of Postwar Organisation of Australian Club Soccer ............................... 72 Figure 4.1: Permanent Settler Arrivals Annually by Region of Birth, 1968-69 to 1983-84 .... 99 Figure 4.2: Permanent Settler Arrivals Annually by Region of Birth, 1984-85 to 1998-99 .. 100 Figure 4.3: Permanent Settler Arrivals Annually by Region of Birth, 1999-2000 to 2011-12 ................................................................................................................................................ 101 Figure 4.4: Successful Overseas Student Visa Applications, 2003-04 to 2011-12 ................ 103 Figure 4.5: Successful Overseas Visa Applications, Top 5 Source Countries, 2003-04 to 2011-12 ................................................................................................................................... 104 Figure 4.6: Permanent Settler Arrivals by Region of Origin, 1953 to 1956 .......................... 107 Figure 4.7: Australian Gallup Polls on Attitude to Immigration, 1954 to 1981 ..................... 114 Figure 4.8: Comparable Polls on Attitude to Immigration, 1984 to 2012 .............................. 115 Figure 4.9: South Australia’s Population Born in Non English-speaking Countries by Region of Birth, 1966 and 2011 Comparison ..................................................................................... 119 Figure 4.10: Location of Soccer Clubs in Adelaide Metropolitan and Outer Suburbs, 1971 123 Figure 4.11: Adelaide – Selected Overseas Born Populations and Languages Spoken at Home, 2011 ........................................................................................................................................ 124 Figure 4.12: Location of Soccer Clubs in Adelaide Metropolitan and Outer Suburbs, 2013 125 Figure 5.1: Comparison of Anglo-Celtic and CALD European-formed Soccer Clubs Comprising South Australia’s First Division Soccer League, 1947 to 1980 ......................... 144 Figure 5.2: Comparison of Players of Anglo-Celtic and CALD Heritage Used in Australia’s FIFA World Cup Matches, 1966 to 2014 ............................................................................... 152 Figure 5.3: Number of CALD Immigrant-formed Soccer Clubs Playing in the Top Division of Australian State and Territory Soccer Leagues, 2013 Season ............................................... 160 Figure 5.4: Selected Participation Rates in Sport by Type, Children 5 to 14, 2000 to 2012 . 162 Figure 5.5: Participation Rates for (Outdoor) Soccer, Children 5 to 14, 2000 to 2012 ......... 162 Figure 6.1: Flow of Research in the Study ............................................................................. 176 ix   Figure 7.1: Age Distribution of Respondents, South Australians (18+) and Arrivals to South Australia, 2001 to August 2011 (18+) .................................................................................... 197 Figure 7.2: Non-school Qualifications of Respondents, Australia’s Australia-born Population and Overseas Born Population ............................................................................................... 198 Figure 7.3: Respondents’ Residential Location, Overseas Born, Population, Use of Language Other than English, Ancestry Other than Australian or English, Selected LGAs and South Australia ................................................................................................................................. 199 Figure 7.4: Ethnicity of Respondents by Region .................................................................... 203 Figure 7.5: Connection to Ethnicity by Generation ................................................................ 205 Figure 7.6: Friends of the Same Ethnicity by Connection to Ethnicity .................................. 211 Figure 7.7: Friends of the Same Ethnicity, Overall and Selected Groups .............................. 213 Figure 7.8: Did Respondents Want their Children to Have a Partner from their Own Ethnic Group, Overall and Selected Groups ...................................................................................... 215 Figure 7.9: Children’s Identification with Ethnicity by Respondents’ Relationship with Ethnicity ................................................................................................................................. 216 Figure 7.10: Importance of Respondents’ Children Identifying with Ethnicity by Respondent’s Connection to Ethnicity ................................................................................... 217 Figure 7.11: Respondents’ Wish for Children’s Partners to be of their Ethnicity by Connection to Ethnicity .......................................................................................................... 217 Figure 8.1: Role(s) Performed by Respondents at Soccer Clubs ........................................... 227 Figure 8.2: Did Involvement with Soccer Assist Adjustment by Period of Arrival ............... 228 Figure 8.3: Support of Australian Men’s Soccer Team by Region of Ethnicity .................... 248 x   ABSTRACT This thesis brings together both existing and new pieces of research, conducted over a period of 8 years. There are four primary aims. The first is to analyse the role the sport of soccer has played in the adjustment of immigrants to Australia since the Second World War with South Australia as a case study. This thesis lies in the context of immigrant adjustment theory and it is an attempt to analyse the role played by soccer in the lives of both new arrivals and their descendants. The social impact of participation in soccer is a long neglected aspect of settlement experiences in Australian immigration literature. Soccer has been specified due to its position in Australia as a sport played and supported by large numbers of culturally and linguistically diverse immigrants. The second aim is to examine the influence of participation in soccer on cultural maintenance. Australian soccer clubs formed by CALD European settlers have a reputation of encouraging their members to maintain their ethnic identity while also stimulating anti-social attitudes – this study investigates the degree to which this is actually occurring, and the implications for cultural and social adjustment. The third is to investigate the potential for participation in soccer to influence the adjustment of immigrants from Asia, Africa and the Middle East – groups more representative of Australia’s immigrant intakes since the 1970s and presently. The fourth is to explore the implications of the study’s findings for immigrant adjustment theory and settlement policy in Australia.