The Rise of Mahāsena Brill’s Indological Library Edited by Johannes Bronkhorst In co-operation with Richard Gombrich, Oskar von Hinüber, Katsumi Mimaki, Arvind Sharma VOLUME 39 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.nl/bil On the cover: Statue of Skanda as Mahāsena from Gandhāra. Photograph: © Trustees of the British Museum This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mann, Richard D. The rise of Mahasena : the transformation of Skanda-Karttikeya in North india from the Kusana to Gupta empires / By Richard D. Mann. p. cm. — (Brill’s Indological library, ISSN 0925-2916 ; v. 39) Revision of the author’s Ph. D. dissertation. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-21754-6 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Karttikeya (Hindu deity)—Cult—India, North—History. 2. Hinduism—India, North— History. I. Title. BL1225.K382M36 2012 294.5’2113--dc23 2011035130 ISSN 0925-2916 ISBN 978 90 04 21754 6 Copyright 2012 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. CoNTENTS List of Illustrations ix Acknowledgements xi List of Abbreviations xiii Introduction 1 1 Theories Related to the origins of Skanda 5 The Supposed Indus Valley Skanda-Kārttikeya 5 A Deification of Alexander the Great 7 A Vedic Amalgam of Kumāras 8 The Early Textual References to Skanda-Kārttikeya 10 2 The Early Traditions of Skanda-Kārttikeya from Epic, Medical and Ritual Sources 15 Classifying and Dating the Mahābhārata 15 The Account of Skanda’s Birth in the Āraṇyakaparvan 18 The Fierce Skanda: An Inauspicious Beginning and the Appearance of Skanda the Warrior 21 The Fierce Skanda: His Tie to Grahas, Kumāras and Mātṛs 25 Grahas in the Āraṇyakaparvan 26 Grahas in the Āyurvedic Tradition 28 Mātṛs in the Āraṇyakaparvan 33 Kumāras in the Āraṇyakaparvan 37 The Worship of Skanda-Kārttikeya and Grahas in the Āraṇya ka parvan and the Skandayāga 40 Skanda the God of Thieves 45 Conclusion to the Fierce Characterization of Skanda- Kārttikeya 46 3 The Emergence of the Senāpati: The Narrative Conversion of the Warrior and Graha 49 The Frame Narratives in the Āraṇyakaparvan: The Hidden Agni 49 The Frame Narratives in the Āraṇyakaparvan: The Rescue of Devasenā 55 vi contents The Ritual Taming of the Deity, Part one: The Brahmini zation of the Deity 57 The Ritual Taming of the Deity, Part Two: The Inauguration of the Senāpati 58 The Familial Theme Part one: The Fatherhood of Agni 62 The Familial Theme Part Two: Skanda’s Mothers and Wife 65 The Familial Theme Part Three: The Fatherhood of Śiva 68 The Distancing of Skanda-Deva from Skandagraha in the Suśrutasaṃhitā 73 The Socio-Political context of the Āraṇyakaparvan 75 4 The Birth of Skanda-Kārttikeya in the Śalyapar van, Anuśāsanaparvan and Rāmāyaṇa 79 The Śalyaparvan Account of Skanda-Kārttikeya’s Birth and Deeds 79 The Parentage of Skanda in the Śalyaparvan 79 The Auspicious Skanda in the Śalyaparvan: The Military Ascetic 81 Skanda’s Birth and Deeds in the Anuśāsanaparvan 85 The Parentage of Skanda in the Anuśāsanaparvan 86 Agni’s Parentage of Skanda and Gold in the Anuśāsana - parvan 90 Furthering the Brahminical Context for Skanda: The Sacrifice in the Anuśāsanaparvan 93 A Second Birth Story for Skanda in the Anuśāsanaparvan 95 Skanda-Kārttikeya in the Rāmāyaṇa 97 Conclusion to the Epic Accounts of Skanda 98 5 Coins, Statuary and Skanda-Kārttikeya: The Earliest Depictions 101 The Yaudheyas and Their Coinage 101 Yaudheya Class Three Coinage: obverse Designs 103 Yaudheya Class Three Coinage: Reverse Designs 107 Yaudheya Context and Chronology 108 From Six Heads to one 113 The Worship and Popularity of Brahmaṇyadeva-Kumāra and Ṣaṣṭhī among the Yaudheyas during the Period of Class Three Coinage 115 The Kuṣāṇa-Era Mathurā Depictions of Skanda-Kārttikeya 117 contents vii Concluding Remarks to the Mathurā Images of Skanda- Kārttikeya 121 6 Skanda-Kārttikeya on Kuṣāṇa Coinage and Gandhāra Statuary 123 Kuṣāṇa Era Gandhāra Statuary of Skanda-Kārttikeya 123 The Mahāsena Coin of Huviṣka 129 The Skanda-Kumāra with Viśākha Coin Type of Huviṣka 135 The Skanda-Kumāra with Viśākha and Mahāsena Coins of Huviṣka 138 The Rise of Mahāsena 139 Skanda-Kārttikeya and Mars in Kuṣāṇa Era Material 140 Conclusion to the Kuṣāṇa Period Depictions of Skanda- Kārttikeya 147 7 Developments in Skanda-Kārttikeya’s Cult between the Empires 149 Yaudheya Coins: The Class Six Issues 149 The Class Six Coinage: The Impact of Kuṣāṇa Design 151 The Context of the Yaudheyas and the ‘Popularity’ of Skanda- Kārttikeya at the Time of the Class Six Issues 154 The Context of the Yaudheyas during the Class Six Period 159 The Spread of Mahāsena in South Asia: Skanda in the Ikṣvāku Kingdom 161 Nāgārjunakoṇḍa: Geography, Background and Cultural Influences 162 Cultural Influences at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa: The Sāta vāhanas 163 Cultural Influences at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa: The Western Kṣatrapas 165 Cultural Influences at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa: Trade 167 The Evidence for Devotion to Skanda Recovered from Nāgār juna koṇḍa 168 Inscriptions Related to Skanda 168 Statuary of Skanda from Nāgārjunakoṇḍa 171 other Potential Images of Skanda from Nāgārjuna koṇḍa 172 Temples of Skanda and Śiva 174 Concluding Remarks on Skanda-Kārttikeya’s Cult at Nāgārjuna koṇḍa 176 viii contents 8 The Kumārasaṃbhava and Purāṇic Accounts of Skanda-Kārttikeya 179 The Kumārasaṃbhava 180 Cantos 1-8, The Story of Śiva and Pārvatī 180 Cantos 9-17, The Birth and Deeds of Skanda 182 The Early Skandapurāṇa 187 The Account of Skanda’s Birth and Deeds in the Early Skanda - purāṇa 187 The Relationship between the Mahābhārata and the Early Skandapurāṇa 192 The Early Skandapurāṇa and the Kumārasaṃbhava 196 The Vāyupurāṇa 197 The Birth of Skanda in the Vāyupurāṇa 199 Concluding Remarks to the Post-Epic Accounts of Skanda- Kārttikeya 201 9 The Material Culture of Skanda-Kārttikeya in the Gupta Empire 203 Gupta Era Statuary of Skanda: Statues from the Eastern Empire 203 Gupta Era Statuary of Skanda: Statues from the Western Empire and Cave Shrines 205 Gupta Era Terracottas of Skanda 216 Numismatic Representations of Skanda in the Gupta Era 218 Inscriptions Related to Skanda from the Gupta Era 224 The Relative Popularity of Skanda during the Gupta Era 229 Conclusion 231 Bibliography 237 Index 251 Plates 257 LIST oF ILLuSTRATIoNS 1 Indus Valley Seal 2 (a, b and c) Yaudheya class three coins (obverses) depict- ing Brah maṇyadeva with a single head 3 (a, b and c) Yaudheya class three coins (obverses) depict- ing Brahmaṇyadeva with six heads 4 Yaudheya class three silver coin (obverse and reverse) 5 (a, b and c) Yaudheya class three coins (reverses) depict- ing a deer 6 Yaudheya class three coin (reverse) depicting Ṣaṣṭhī with six heads 7 Yaudheya class three coin (reverse) depicting Ṣaṣṭhī with a single head 8 Panel of the Ṣaṣṭhī Triad from Mathurā 9 Panel of Skanda with seven standing Mātṛs from Mathurā 10 Panel of Skanda with seated Mātṛs from Mathurā 11 Panel of Skanda with animal-headed Mātṛ from Mathurā 12 Panel of animal- and bird-headed Mātṛs from Mathurā 13 Panel of Skanda with animal- and bird-headed Mātṛs from Mathurā 14 Statue of Skanda as Mahāsena from Mathurā 15 Statue of Skanda as Mahāsena from Mathurā 16 Bronze of Skanda as Mahāsena from Sonkh 17 Statue of Skanda as Mahāsena from Gandhāra 18 (a and b) Gold coins of Huviṣka (reverses) depicting Mahāsena 19 Kuṣāṇa gold coin (reverse) depicting orlagno 20 Kuṣāṇa gold coin (reverse) depicting Pharro 21 Gold coin of Huviṣka (obverse) depicting the king sitting with a bird standard 22 (a and b) Gold coins of Huviṣka (reverses) depicting Skanda-Kumāra and Viśākha 23 Gold coin of Huviṣka (reverse) depicting Skanda-Kumāra and Viśākha holding hands 24 (a and b) Gold coins of Huviṣka (reverses) depicting Mahāsena, Skanda-Kumāra and Viśākha 25 (a and b) Gandhāran seal and sealing depicting Kārttikeya x list of illustrations 26 (a – f) Yaudheya class six coins (obverses and reverses) 27 Statue of Skanda-Mahāsena from Mitawali, Morena Dis- trict, Madhya Pradesh 28 Statue of Skanda-Mahāsena from Nāgārjunakoṇḍa 29 Front view of a potential bust of Skanda 30 Rear view of a potential bust of Skanda 31 Statue of Skanda-Kumāra from the eastern Gupta Empire 32 Panel of Skanda from udayagiri, cave 3 33 Shrine of an Ithyphallic figure and Mātṛkās from udayagiri 34 Ithyphallic figure from udayagiri 35 Panel of Skanda ridding a peacock from udayagiri 36 Panel depicting Skanda from udayagiri, cave 7/outside cave 6 and part of Mātṛkā shrine 37 Panel depicting Skanda from figure 36 38 Skanda-Mahāsena from Śāmalājī 39 Panel from Elephanta depicting Skanda 40 Panel from Ellora depicting Skanda 41 (a and b) Gupta era terracotta figures of Skanda 42 Gupta era panel depicting the abhiṣeka of Skanda 43 Kumāragupta I gold coin depicting the king with peacock (obverse) and Kārttikeya ridding a peacock (reverse)