Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-CONSTRUAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT OF ASIAN INDIAN INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS STUDYING IN NEW ZEALAND. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology, Massey University, Palmerston North Mary Christine Cooper 2015 i ABSTRACT New Zealand has experienced a dramatic increase in the number of Asian Indian international students undertaking study in this country in recent years, with the majority choosing a Polytechnic Institute to pursue their tertiary education. This phenomenon is part of a global trend which has encouraged a large body of literature describing international students’ acculturation and adjustment experiences. However, as little research centres on Indian students, this study seeks to address in some way that gap by exploring the association between self-construal and socio-cultural and psychological adjustment of Indian international students to life in New Zealand. A total of 39 Indian students, studying at Waiariki Institute of Technology, 63% of whom were males, completed an online survey. The survey comprised of a number of measures investigating the four hypotheses which explore student self-construal and adjustment and those factors that predict and mediate the adjustment of Indian students. The findings of this study show that in spite of India being described as a collectivist and traditional family-centred culture, Indian students adopt a bicultural approach as early as six months after their arrival in New Zealand. They show positive levels of adjustment, with social connectedness and English language fluency having a partial mediating effect on the relationship between the horizontal-relational dimension of self-construal and psychological adjustment. While there are a number of limitations to this study, the findings are encouraging and suggest that Indian students possess a number of attributes that facilitate their adjustment. The influence of the horizontal-collective dimension of self-construal on Indian students’ adjustment highlights the importance of on-campus strategies to encourage the development of meaningful relationships among students which support ongoing adjustment to academic study and life in New Zealand. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the face of a multiple challenges this work stands as a testimony to perseverance and endurance. It has not reached its conclusion without the help of many who have offered practical and moral support, to all of whom I extend my grateful thanks and appreciation. While there are many, some stand out and deserve particular mention: my supervisor Associate Professor Ross Flett for his guidance and encouragement throughout the process; Mr Harvey Jones with his technical support and advice in conducting the online survey; Nancy Collins, Liz Love and Shefali Sharma for their wonderful contribution proofreading and for their advice; Derek Christie for technical support, and to friends and work colleagues who have shown interest and offered encouragement throughout my journey. To the many international students that have crossed my path and inspired this topic, I am grateful for the opportunity that I have received to gain a richer appreciation of the diversity of the human family. My family deserve special recognition for their contribution during this Masters journey. To my husband who has offered tireless encouragement and to our family, I thank them all for their ongoing and unconditional acceptance of my interest in ongoing study and their support. Our own multi-cultural fabric has laid the foundation for appreciating that who ‘I’ am and who ‘I’ become depends on a rich tapestry of life experience. Their own migratory experience echoes through the pages of this thesis. Finally, this project would not have been achieved without divine inspiration and intervention. I thank God for providing all that was required to bring it to fruition. My sincere hope is that it will inspire others who face many life challenges to realise their own by goals by remaining ever hopeful, believing in themselves and by taking one day at a time. iii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 India and Indian Migration ...................................................................................................... 3 1.1.1 Understanding India ........................................................................................................ 3 1.1.2 Indians in New Zealand ................................................................................................... 5 1.2 Understanding Self .................................................................................................................. 5 1.2.1 What is Self? .................................................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Culture and Self ............................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Theoretical Perspectives ......................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Indian Self................................................................................................................................ 9 1.5 The Cultural Syndromes ........................................................................................................ 11 1.5.1 Individualism and Collectivism ...................................................................................... 12 1.5.2 Self-Construal ................................................................................................................ 13 1.5.3 The Cultural Expression of Indian Selfhood .................................................................. 16 1.6 Acculturation ......................................................................................................................... 18 1.7 Adjustment............................................................................................................................ 21 1.7.1 Psychological and Socio-cultural Adjustment ............................................................... 21 1.7.2 Social Connectedness .................................................................................................... 25 1.7.3 Language Competence/Confidence .............................................................................. 27 1.8 Overview of the Current Study ............................................................................................. 28 CHAPTER 2 - METHOD ........................................................................................................................... 30 2.1 Participants ........................................................................................................................... 30 2.2 Procedure .............................................................................................................................. 31 2.3 Measures ............................................................................................................................... 32 2.3.1 Sixfold Self-Construal Scale ........................................................................................... 32 2.3.2 Revised Sociocultural Adaptation Scale ........................................................................ 34 2.3.3 Shortened Affectometer 2 Scale ................................................................................... 35 2.3.4 Social Connectedness Scale-R ....................................................................................... 36 2.3.5 English Language Confidence Scale .............................................................................. 36 2.3.6 Standard English Score .................................................................................................. 37 iv 2.3.7 Demographics ............................................................................................................... 38 CHAPTER 3 – RESULTS ........................................................................................................................... 39 3.1 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................. 39 3.2 Measures ............................................................................................................................... 40 3.3 Normative Comparisons ....................................................................................................... 42 3.4 The Self-Construal of Indian students ................................................................................... 46 3.4.1 Four Dimensions of Interdependent Self-Construal versus Independent Self-Construal ....................................................................................................................................... 48 3.4.2 Merged Interdependent and Independent Self-Construal ........................................... 51 3.5 Socio-cultural and Psychological Adjustment ....................................................................... 52 3.6 Bicultural Self-Construal and Adjustment ............................................................................. 56 3.7 Social Connectedness and English Confidence as Mediating Variables ............................... 57 CHAPTER 4 - DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................... 61 4.1 Indian International Students’ Self-Construal ....................................................................... 61 4.2 Adjustment............................................................................................................................ 65 4.2.1 Socio-cultural Adjustment ............................................................................................ 65 4.2.2 Psychological Adjustment ............................................................................................. 67 4.3 Biculturalism ......................................................................................................................... 70 4.4 Limitations............................................................................................................................. 72 4.5 Opportunities for further Research ...................................................................................... 74 4.6 Implications for Practice ....................................................................................................... 75 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 77 Appendix A: Information Cover Sheet .................................................................................................. 87 Appendix B: Survey Scales .................................................................................................................... 90 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Range, Mean and Standard Deviation of Research Variables, 95% Confidence of the Means and Alpha Reliabilities of the Measures............................................................................................... 41 Table 2: Normative Comparisons of the Sixfold Self- Construal Scale ................................................. 43 Table 3: Normative Comparisons of the Social Connectedness Scale and the English Language Confidence Scale ................................................................................................................................. 46 Table 4: Comparison of Mean Differences between the Four Dimensions of Interdependent Dimensions and Independent Self-Construal ……................................................................................. 48 Table 5: Comparison of Mean Differences between Gender and Self-Construal of Indian Students .. 49 Table 6: One-way Analysis of Variance for the Effects of Self-Construal on Length of Stay in New Zealand ............................................................................................................................................... 50 Table 7: One-way Analysis of Variance for the Effects of Self-Construal on Students’ Home State of Origin .................................................................................................................................................. 51 Table 8: Merged Interdependent Self-Construal Scores Comparing all Interdependent Dimensions and the Relational and Collective Dimensions with Independent Self-Construal …………………….......…..….. 52 Table 9: Correlations between Socio-cultural Adjustment and Psychological Adjustment and Vertical- Relational, Horizontal Relational, Vertical-Collective and Horizontal-Collective Self-Construal …….… 53 Table 10: Predicting Socio-cultural Adjustment from the Interdependent and Independent Dimensions of the Sixfold Self Construal Scale ………………………………………………………………………………………………..... 54 Table 11: Predicting Psychological Adjustment from the Interdependent and Independent Dimensions of the Six-Fold Self Construal Scale ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 55 Table 12: Correlations between Predictor Variables: Interdependent and Independent Self-Construal Dimensions, Outcome Variables: Socio-cultural Adjustment and Psychological Adjustment and Mediation Variables: Social Connectedness and English Language Confidence ……………………………… 58 Table 13: Mediating Effects of Social-Connectedness on Self-Construal Dimensions with Significant Correlations between Predictor, Outcome and Mediating Variables ……………………………………………... 59 Table 14: Mediating Effects of English Language Confidence on Self-Construal Dimensions with Significant Correlations between Predictor, Outcome and Mediating Variables …………………………….. 60 vi CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION The world has witnessed a dramatic increase in migration of international students in just over 25 years, increasing from 0.8 million in 1975 to 4.5 million in 2012, with numbers doubling more recently between 2000 and 2012 (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2014). The OECD offers some insights into the global trends associated with international students. The 21 European Union (EU) countries collectively host the most foreign students with many travelling within the continent to further their study. Outside Europe, the United States has traditionally and continues to be the most popular destination for many international students (16%). While New Zealand attracts 2% of the global migration of students, it is among a small group of countries that have the highest percentage (approximately 10%) of international students contributing to the country’s entire tertiary population (OECD, 2014). The highest numbers of international students travel from Asia (53%) with most coming from China, India and Korea (OECD, 2014). This global trend in students seeking educational opportunities beyond their homelands has captivated research attention for several decades, most of which has centred on the experience of Asian students in the United States. Cross-cultural inquiry has only recently shifted focus to understand the experiences of a more diverse cultural mix of sojourning students studying in locations across other continents. The work of Berry and associates (Berry, 2006a; Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987; Berry & Sam, 1997) provides a useful framework to understand migrant acculturation patterns and adjustment to a host culture. Developing a bicultural identity which signifies accommodation of and competence within the heritage and host cultures (Nguyen & Benet-Martínez, 2013) supports adjustment within a foreign environment (Ward & Kennedy, 1994). Studies of international students undertaken by Ward and colleagues (Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1993a, 1994, 1999) have contributed greatly with the elaboration of their theoretical 1 model describing psychological and socio-cultural adjustment. Their model has been widely used among differing cultural groups and repeatedly provides evidence that a bicultural approach supports enhanced adjustment of international students (Ward & Kennedy, 1994). Alternatively, acculturative stress has been linked with negative mental health outcomes, with the level of stress predictive of mental illness (Hwang & Ting, 2008). The passage towards adjustment is influenced by factors associated with both the migrant group and the host country. International students face additional difficulties as they often struggle with homesickness, a loss of usual social supports during the adjustment period and language difficulties which all act as a barriers to developing meaningful friendship networks (Yeh & Inose, 2003). Becoming bicultural may in fact be related to the way in which a student’s culture of origin shapes their view of the world. The culturally determined patterns of individualism and collectivism described by Hofstede (1984) as shaping the national level differences observed in social practices, also occur at an individual level and are revealed in the construction of self and the psychological processes that form self-systems (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Independent and interdependent self- construal describe differences in relational patterns of behaviour and account for the way individuals interpret, understand and connect within society. Asian Indian students (referred to hereafter as Indian students) arrive from a cultural background with a rich history and traditional practices that encourage a relational self (Kakar, 2012). Socialisation within this context scripts a unique culturally determined self-way and produces a strong collectively-oriented identity that is vastly different from that seen in most countries that become study destinations for Indian students. A recent study revealed self-construal has a bearing on international students’ adaptation and adjustment to a foreign culture (Shim, Freund, Stopsack, Kämmerer, & Barnow, 2014). This may be a significant finding for the growing number of Indian students choosing New Zealand as destination for further study as little is known about their sojourning experience. 2 Each of these areas will be discussed in more detail to understand factors that have a bearing on students settling into a social environment that is often vastly different to their homeland. It is important to examine Indian students’ culture of origin to gain an appreciation of the impact this has on self-construal and adjustment. The next section will briefly position Indian students within the New Zealand academic context and provide an overview of the sub-continent that geographically defines India. 1.1 India and Indian Migration 1.1.1 Understanding India India is the second largest country in Asia with a population of over 1 billion. Its civilisation is among the oldest in the world dating back over 5000 years with migration, invasion and colonisation all contributing towards populating the Indus valley, producing a rich tapestry of diverse ethnic cultural influences in one geographic area (Medora, 2007). While four main religions co-exist in India, the Hindu religion emerged as the dominant socio-cultural influence imposing a profound effect on Indian identity and the construction of self in Indian society (Kakar, 2012). The ancient traditions contained in the Advaita Vedānta, a set of sacred texts, are seen as the spiritual basis of Hindu society and the Indian way of life (Paranjpe & Rao, 2008). The Bhagavad Gita, the most well-known of these texts, speaks of life as being a transition; a soul never dies but is reborn until it escapes this cycle through reaching perfection and salvation (Misra, 2001). The text emphasises spiritual attainment and self-transformation as the goal of all human activity (Roland, 1988), stating this is achieved by observing prescribed practices and by renouncing the physical self and worldly pursuits to reach a higher state (Bharati, 1985). Contained within the Hindu way are the well-defined and important social institutions of the family and Jati or caste, both of which reflect the hierarchical ordering deeply ingrained within Hinduism and imposing an enduring effect on Indian identity (Kakar, 2012). The Indian family is a traditional, 3