University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) The relationship between personality and creativity: A psychometric study A mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MA Research Psychology in the Department of Psychology at the UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA FACULTY OF HUMANITIES by Talana Naudé SUPERVISOR: Prof. D.J.F. Maree December 2005 University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In completion of this study, I would like to express my gratitude to the following individuals: • Prof. D.J.F. Maree, my supervisor, for his time, encouragement, guidance and patience during the completion of this study; • Mrs. R. Owen for her assistance with the statistical analysis; • Miss. D. Jordaan, for the language editing; • My husband, Louie Naudé, for his unconditional love and support; • My family and friends, for all their motivation, support and unfailing confidence in me. Talana Naudé Personality & Creativity 2 University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES 6 LIST OF FIGURES 8 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 9 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 12 2.1 CREATIVITY 12 2.1.1 Background 12 2.1.2 Factors influencing creativity 12 2.1.3 Diferent views on creativity 15 2.1.3.1 The Trilogy-of-Mind 15 2.1.3.2 Catel’s Interactional Aproach 16 2.1.4 Defining creativity 17 2.1.5 The role of personality 18 2.1.6 The creative individual 19 2.2 CONCEPTUALISATION 2 2.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 27 CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF TEST CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH 28 3.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF RELIAIBLITY 28 3.1.1 Factors influencing reliability 28 3.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF VALIDITY 29 3.2.1 Threats to validity 29 3.3 WRITING ITEMS 30 3.4 PSYCHOMETRIC AIM OF THE STUDY 31 3.4.1 The need for a valid and reliable instrument for measuring creativity 31 3.4.2 Existing controversy and speculation 32 3.5 CONCLUSION 33 Talana Naudé Personality & Creativity 3 University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY 34 4.1 AIM OF THE STUDY 34 4.1.1 Rectifying misconceptions regarding creative individuals 34 4.1.2 Development of hypotheses regarding the motivation for creativity 35 4.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 36 4.3 SAMPLE 36 4.4 INSTRUMENTS USED 36 4.4.1 The Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults 36 4.4.1.1 Reliability 37 4.4.1.2 Validity 37 4.4.2 The 16PF SA92 38 4.4.2.1 Reliability 39 4.4.2.2 Validity 41 4.4.3 The Creativity Questionaire 42 4.5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCES 42 4.5.1 Idea-generating phase 42 4.5.2 Problem-definition phase 42 4.5.3 Procedure-design phase 42 4.5.4 Observation phase 43 4.5.4.1 Administering the tests 43 4.5.4.2 Scoring and capturing the data 43 4.5.5 Data-analysis phase 4 4.5.6 Interpretation phase 4 4.5.7 Communication phase 4 4.6 CONSTRUCTING THE CREATIVITY QUESTIONAIRE 4 4.6.1 Motivation for items included 4 4.6.2 Scoring the Creativity Questionaire 47 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS 50 5.1 SAMPLE 50 5.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 5 5.3 PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE CREATIVITY QUESTIONAIRE 59 5.4 CREATIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE: FREQUENCIES 61 Talana Naudé Personality & Creativity 4 University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) 5.5 COMPARISON OF THE ATTA AND CREATIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE 67 5.6 COMPARISON OF THE ATTA AND 16PF SA92 70 CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 73 6.1 PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE CREATIVITY QUESTIONAIRE 73 6.2 COMPARISON OF THE ATTA AND CREATIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE 74 6.3 COMPARISON OF THE ATTA AND THE 16PF SA92 76 6.3.1 A typical 16PF profile of a creative individual 80 6.4 CONCLUSION 81 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 82 LIST OF REFERENCES 84 ANNEXURES 92 Talana Naudé Personality & Creativity 5 University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Conceptual constructs 24 Table 2: ATA reliability 37 Table 3: 16PF factors’ description 38 Table 4: 16PF SA92 reliability coefficients for combined group as determined by K-R8 40 Table 5: 16PF retest reliability coefficients for each of the first- and second-order factors of the sA92 form (as calculated from data obtained from the SAP, 192) 41 Table 6: Creativity Questionnaire scoring 47 Table 7: Creativity Questionnaire: Descriptive statistics 55 Table 8: 16PF: Descriptive Statistics 58 Table 9: Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults: Descriptive statistics 58 Table 10: Creativity Questionnaire variable division: Frequency constructs 59 Table 11: Creativity Questionnaire variable division: Agreement constructs 60 Table 12: Cronbach’s Alpha: Creativity Questionnaire (Frequency constructs) 60 Table 13: Cronbach’s Alpha: Creativity Questionnaire (Agreement constructs) Table 14 Frequency table: ATTA raw scores 61 Table 15: Frequency table: Hobbies (quantity; quality) score (CQ) vs. creativity level (ATTA) 62 Table 16: Frequency table: Sport (quantity; isolated) score (CQ) vs. creativity level (ATTA) 63 Table 17: Frequency table: Creative attributes score (CQ) vs. creativity level (ATTA) 63 Table 18: Frequency table: Many uses watch (quantity; quality) score (CQ) vs. creativity level (ATA) 64 Table 19: Frequency table: Many uses shoe (quantity; originality; quality) score (CQ) vs. creativity level (ATA) 64 Table 20: Frequency table: Lateral/intuitive thinking (egg; 150) score (CQ) vs. creativity level (ATA) 65 Table 21: Frequency table: Drawing elaboration and movement/sound Score (CQ) vs. creativity level (ATA) 6 Talana Naudé Personality & Creativity 6 University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) Table 22: Frequency table: Remote associations (Blue; Button) score (CQ) vs. creativity level (ATA) 6 Table 23: Significant differences between creativity groups in terms of CQ constructs 68 Table 24: Significant differences between creativity groups in terms of 16PF SA92 constructs 70 Talana Naudé Personality & Creativity 7 University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Conceptualising the dynamics of creativity 17 Figure 2: The circular nature of personality measurement 18 Figure 3: Conceptualisation of the research conducted 23 Figure 4: Age 50 Figure 5: Gender 51 Figure 6: Race 52 Figure 7: Language 52 Figure 8: Year of study 53 Figure 9: Course of study 54 Figure 10: Creativity level 54 Figure 11: Differences between creativity groups on CQ frequency constructs 69 Figure 12: Differences between creativity groups on CQ agreement constructs 69 Figure 13: Differences between creativity groups on 16PF SA92 constructs 71 Figure 14: An average profile of a creative individual vs. an individual with low creativity as measured by the ATTA 79 Talana Naudé Personality & Creativity 8 University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Given the problems associated with the measurement of creativity, there is probably more speculation than there are data for the personality constructs correlating with creativity (Furnham, 1999). According to Smith & Tegano (1992), measuring creativity is a complex and tiring task. A great number of methods have been used, such as the use of autobiographical instruments or biographical reports (i.e. hobbies, creative activities, taking risks, sense of humour, etc.) (Smith & Tegano, 1992). Some of these methods show high levels of reliability and validity, while others fail in this regard. While several methods and instruments (for example autobiographical instruments and biographical reports) have been applied to investigate creativity, psychometric methods have been the main source of information. This implies the direct measurement of creativity and/or the observed correlates thereof in individuals. Most of the recent research conducted on creativity is thus based on psychometric methods, or methods that have been created in reaction to observed problems in the measurement of creativity (Smith & Tegano, 1992). Since psychometric methods have been the main source of information during the past few decades, this approach to the study of creativity forms the basis for our understanding of creativity. However, the psychometric approach is significantly more complex and comprehensive than some critics might want us to believe. While problems associated with the psychometric approach are often highlighted, alternatives to the psychometric approach are also drenched with similar problems occurring during the direct measurement of creativity (Sternberg, 1999). According to Sternberg (1999), the wide use of psychometric methods is surprising when one considers the widely accepted belief that creativity is indefinable and immeasurable. The aim of the current study is threefold: To develop a creativity questionnaire based on the main criteria for creativity as determined by means of a comprehensive literature survey; to administer this questionnaire, in combination with the Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (ATTA), and the 16 Personality Questionnaire (16PF) for the purpose of determining respondents’ level of creativity in relation to their personality constellation; to determine whether a typical 16PF profile can be obtained for the purpose of identifying a creative individual. The sample consisted of fourth-year Psychology students at the University of Pretoria. Identified problems that motivated the research, include amongst others a lack of research in this domain, and therefore a need for a reliable and valid measuring instrument for creativity. Creative individuals are often misinterpreted or misunderstood by the community as the result of a lack of knowledge. Various misconceptions exist such as the perception that creative individuals are crazy or as Ochse (1990) pointed out, the misconception that there is a relationship between genius and madness. The purpose of the Talana Naudé Personality & Creativity 9 University of Pretoria etd – Naude, T (2007) research will also be to reduce misconceptions such as these, by informing the reader of creativity and the individuals who have this unique characteristic. These issues will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. Yet, creativity is an extremely broad concept which is very difficult to define. The main criteria for creativity were thus applied in the development of the Creativity Questionnaire. According to Ryhammar & Brolin (1999), creative individuals can be described as motivated, persevering, intellectually inquisitive, having a need for self-actualisation, independent in thought and deed, confident, self-aware, and open to external and internal stimulation. Creative individuals are typically attracted to and stimulated by uncertainties and complexities, and are usually sensitive to and have a great capacity for emotional involvement. Operationalisation of such criteria formed the basis of the creativity questionnaire. For example, divergent thinking can be operationalised as the ability to generate a substantial amount of diverse ideas, as measured by using open-end questions. The dissertation reports on the development of a Creativity Questionnaire that can be used in a variety of areas, but will need further revision and refinement in terms of items included, validity and reliability. Therefore the current study should be considered as a pilot study for the testing and development of this questionnaire. Concepts within the creativity domain will be discussed, investigated and explained for the purpose of providing a foundation or guidelines for future development of creativity questionnaires. Creativity questionnaires and assessment instruments are often very expensive and time consuming. If a typical 16PF profile of a creative individual is determined, it can be used as the more economic and efficient option to measure creativity. Since most psychologists already own or make use of the 16PF, this can be used for another purpose as well, the measurement of creativity. Consequently no additional tests have to be purchased. It can be used for the purpose of job selection, university selection, and also by personnel agencies, psychologists, etc. One could also use this to validate creativity constructs already measured. After collecting the data from all respondents, 16PF factors identified as playing a role in creativity (for example the “M” factor) were investigated in relation to the creativity scores obtained on the two creativity- measuring instruments. For example, the second order factor, independence (iv), is of great importance with regard to creativity: “I want to do my own thing, my own way.” The following factors might play a role here: E (high), L (high), and B (high), while M (high), Q1 (high) and Q2 (low) should definitely play a role. These factors refer to traits that are generally present in creative individuals. This will be discussed in greater detail in the analysis section. A comprehensive literature study for the purpose of identifying different theories and methods applied in previous research, as well as the most prominent traits of creative individuals forms the basis of the study. This allowed for the identification of areas where research is needed, and where controversy exists within the personality-creativity domain. Creativity and personality will be discussed in terms of previous research Talana Naudé Personality & Creativity 10