The Real Green Re v o l u t i o n Organic and agroecological farming in the South Nicholas Parrott & Terry Marsden Department of City and Regional Planning, Cardiff University Greenpeace Environmental Trust Canonbury Villas, London N1 2PN, United Kingdom www.greenpeace.org.uk/trust February 2002 Published by Greenpeace Environmental Trust Canonbury Villas, London N1 2PN, United Kingdom Registered Charity No. 284934 © Greenpeace Environmental Trust 2002 A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1 903907 02 0 Design by Paul Hamilton at One Another Printed in the United Kingdom by Russell Press Printed on 100% post-consumer recycled paper Front cover image © Pasha Saale Back cover image © 2001-Greenpeace/Lopez Table of contents Fo r e w o r d 4 Food security for all the world’s people Dr Doug Parr, Greenpeace Chief Scientist Ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s 8 1 Methodology and approach 1.1 Context 10 1.2 Aims and objectives 10 1.3 Scope and definitions 11 1.4 Research methods 16 2 The world grows organic. 2.1 Estimating the extent of global organic production 18 2.2 External stimuli for the development of organic agriculture 21 2.3 Towards a typology of incentives and constraints to‘grow organic’ 23 3 Regional perspectives 3.1 Africa 36 3.2 Asia 45 3.3 Latin America 51 4 Key themes 4.1 Productivity and sustainability 61 4.2 Organic agriculture and diversity 66 4.3 Natural methods of enhancing soil ferti l i t y 73 4.4 Natural regimes of pest and disease control 80 4.5 Markets and premia 90 4.6 Certi f i c a t i o n 93 4.7 Institutional and political issues 98 4.8 Social and cultural issues 10 1 5 Conclusions and recommendations 5.1 Creating a coherent ‘alternative’ agricultural movement. 10 7 5.2 Promoting OAA: defining objectives 10 8 5.3 Global research and advocacy 10 8 5.4 Building local capacity. 10 9 Bi b l i o g r a p h y 11 2 Glossary of abbreviations and acronyms 12 8 Appendix 1 – Electronic res o u r ces for OAA 13 0 Appendix 2a – Research institutes and consultancies 13 7 Appendix 2b – NGOs and producer grou p s 13 8 En d n o t e s 14 4 The Real Green Revolution 1 List of case studies Case Study 1 The Chagga Home Gardens (Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania) 14 Case Study 2 Organic cotton production in India, Peru and Mali 24 Case Study 3 Cuba: towards a national organic regime? 27 Case Study 4 World Food Day Farmers’ and Fishermens' Movement (Indonesia) 30 Case Study 5 Ambootia Tea Estate (Darjeeling, India) 35 Case Study 6 Zaï: a traditional method for restoring degraded land 39 Case Study 7 Organic and ethical banana production 58 Case Study 8 New developments in rice production 63 Case Study 9 Ecological land restoration in Tig r a y 77 Case Study 10 Sekem (Egypt) 93 2 List of tables and figures Table 1 Key aims, principles and management practices of organic farming 12 Table 2.1 Certified organic land by country (hectares) 19 Table 2.2 Certified organic land by country (% of agricultural land) 19 Table 2.3 IFOAM members by country 20 Table 2.4 Incentives and constraints to organic farming 23 Table 2.4 The sustainable agriculture and rural development prize 26 Table 3.1 Organic farming statistics for Africa 37 Table 3.2 African organic agricultural products on international markets 37 Figure 3.1 Illustration of Zaï or planting pit 39 Figure 3.2 The push-pull method for controlling maize stemborer 42 Table 3.3 Organic farming statistics for Asia 45 Table 3.4 Organic farming statistics for Latin America 52 Table 4.1 Examples of yield increases attributable to adoption of OAA 62 Table 4.2 Risk reduction strategies of traditional farmers 66 Table 4.3 Annual soil loss (tons/ha) at Ibadan, Nigeria 67 Table 4.4 Effects of A. Albida on millet yield in Senegal 69 Figure 4.1 Influence of trees on maize cropping in Tlaxacal (Mexico) 72 Table 4.5 Nutrient management strategies 75 Table 4.6 Plants with pest controlling properti e s 78 Table 4.6 Premia generated by organic producers 81 Table 4.7 A flow chart for identifying synergies in OAA research 99 Table 4.8 Textures of folk knowledge 102 The Real Green Revolution 3 Foreword still largely overlooked by policy-makers, this Food security for all the world’s people movement presents a hopeful alternative to a world that would be dominated by corporate Dr Doug Parr, Greenpeace Chief Scientist ag r ochemical giants and monocultural The crisis in Argentina in late 2001 ag r i c u l t u r e. And, as this rep o r t shows, orga n i c i l l u s t rated again a frustrating and unjust fa r ming is not simply a passing fad for reality: there is no direct relationship consumers in the rich world. Put into practice b e t ween the amount of food a country in the South, it can increase food security, produces and the number of hungry people reduce poverty and protect environ m e n t a l who live there.In 2001,Argentina harve s t e d res o u r ces for the future – unlike its enough wheat to meet the needs of both conventional alternative. China and India.Yet A r g e n t i n a ’s people we r e Organic increasing h u n g r y.Argentina's status as the wo r l d ' s second largest producer of GM crops – This rep o r t identifies some of the positive l a r g e ly for export – could do nothing to tr ends currently emerging, for example: s o l ve its very real hunger problems at home. For fifty years conventional agriculture has • Latest estimates of land managed accordi n g been getting less and less sustainable. to ecological principles vary from 15.8 to 30 Chemical pesticides,fertilizers and hy b r i d million hectares (equivalent to about 3% of seeds have destroyed wildlife and crop agricultural land in the South). d ive r s i t y,poisoned people and ruined the This figure would almost certainly be much s o i l .N ow that the organic movement is higher if de facto organic agriculture taking off in the industrialised wo r l d , practiced by traditional subsistence farme r s g ove r n m e n t s ,international agencies and we r e to be included. global agribusiness corporations must stop promoting this destructive system in the • Two thirds of new members of the S o u t h .I n s t e a d ,there must be coherent and In t e r national Federation of Orga n i c long-term support – in practice as well as in Agricultural Movements (IFOAM) principle – to enable the nascent ecological come from the South. farming movement in poorer countries to continue to grow into the future. • In t e r national agencies – principally the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO ) The world is on the brink of a second ‘Gree n and the Centre for Trade and Development Revolution’, which – unlike the first – has the (U N C T AD) – have woken up to the potential to truly live up to its name. This is not potential of organic farming in raising a revolution in biotechnology; still less has it fa r mers’ incomes, creating jobs and anything to do with genetic engineering. enhancing food security. Instead, it is a global move towards ecological ag r i c u l t u r e, which promises to both feed a • Cuba has been moving towards a gr owing world population and to do so nationwide organic system, and 65% of its sustainably – without compromising the needs rice and nearly 50% of fresh vegetables are of future generations to feed themselves. now produced orga n i c a l l y . Argentina now has the largest area of land under orga n i c Working in tandem with nature and cultivation of any country in the world after encouraging biodiversity and local self-rel i a n c e , Au s t r a l i a . this new trend towards organic and ag r oecological farming is vibrant throu g h Africa, Latin America and Asia. Although 4 Greater diversity peasant farmers, who are intuitively aware Maintaining agricultural biodiversity is vital to of the dangers of monocropping. ensuring the long-term food security of all the Working with ecology wo r l d ’ s people. This rep o r t also shows that ag r oecological farms exhibit a much grea t e r This rep o r t shows how organic and ar ray of biodiversity than conventional ag r oecological approaches to agriculture chemical-dependent farms, with more tree s , ar e helping to conserve and improve farme r s ’ a wider diversity of crops and many diffe r en t most precious res o u r ce – the topsoil. In contrast natural predators which control pests and help to the problems of hardening, nutrient loss and pr event disease. In many parts of the South, the er osion experienced by conventional farme r s , diversity of crop species on organic and or ganic managers across the South are using ag r oecological holdings typically numbers in tr ees, shrubs and leguminous plants to stabilise the hundreds, in stark contrast to the and feed the soil, dung and compost to prov i d e mo n o c u l t u r e encouraged by conventional nutrients, and terracing or check dams to systems. For example: pr event erosion and conserve grou n d w a t e r . Th e r e is no ‘one-size-fits-all’ strategy, and the • Indigenous farmers in Peru cultivate best approach varies with local expertise and mo r e than three thousand diffe r ent types ecological conditions. of potato. Increasing yields • Mo r e than five thousand varieties of sweet The widespread assumption that converting to potato are cultivated in Papua New Guinea. or ganic means a decline in yields has been pr oven to be false, a conclusion supporte d • In West Java, res e a r chers have identified by overwhelming evidence contained in this mo r e than 230 species of plant within a dual rep o r t. Case studies from many diffe r en t cr opping system, which includes countries – involving radically diffe r en t ‘a g r of o r es t r y’ home gardens and outfields. practices, local conditions and crops – show In Mexico, the Huastec Indians manage dramatic increases in yields as well as benefits a number of plots in which up to 300 to soil quality, a reduction in pests and diseases species are cultivated. Areas around the and a general improvement in taste and house may contain between 80-125 useful nutritional content of agricultural produce. species, many with medicinal prop e r ties. For example: This diversity is maintained through traditional seed-swap networks, which are now being • In Brazil the use of green manures and cover extended and encouraged by the organic and cr ops has increased yields of maize by ag r oecological movement. Whilst global between 20% and 250%. industrial agriculture has led to a situation wh e r e the world’s population gets 90% of its • In Tig r a y , Ethiopia, yields of crops from food calories from a mere 15 species of crop s , composted plots were between three and or ganic and agroecological farmers are five times higher than those treated only pr oviding a vital service in maintaining genetic with chemicals. diversity for the future – a service increasingly threatened by genetically- • Yield increases of 175% have been rep o r te d modified pollution and corporate biopiracy. fr om farms in Nepal adopting The maintenance of a wide range of crop s ag r oecological management practices. pr ovides food security throughout the year, an ov e r whelmingly important consideration for • In Peru the restoration of traditional Incan The Real Green Revolution 5 te r racing has led to increases in the order of • The overwhelming majority of Southern 150% for a range of upland crop s . or ganic produce is still sold as unproc e s s e d pr i m a r y commodities, leaving poorer The importance is not just that yields are fa r mers still exposed to the vagaries of in c r eased – important as that undoubtedly is – world markets, and meaning that the but that the increases are much more under the benefits of processing and value-adding co n t r ol of the farmers and communities that remain in the North . pr oduce them, in contrast to a high input agricultural model where the benefits go to the • Much Southern-based organic production is equipment and chemical manufacturers and for export to the industrialised world, seed merch a n t s . raising the issues of ‘food miles’ and how best to protect local food security and self- Economic drivers reliance. However, local and national Ac r oss the South, engagement with the or ganic markets are developing in many lucrative and rapidly growing organic foods po o r er countries, notably Brazil, Egypt and market in the industrialised world is still the Ar ge n t i n a . main driving force behind the development of the certified organic sector. Organic certi f i c a t i o n • Ex p e r tise in certification is still can generate big premia for primary prod u c e r s , ov e r whelmingly concentrated in the especially from export markets. Although some industrialised world, and achieving go v e r nments are now recognising the export ce r tification is a major barrier to many potential of organic produce, its development fa r mers in poor countries who lack literacy so far has been driven almost exclusively by the and other skills and facilities necessary. NGO sector – often despite official hostility. What is needed Remaining challenges This rep o r t makes some clear and practical This rep o r t goes on to show that some key recommendations for how organic and challenges remain, however. These include the ag r oecological agriculture should be supporte d following issues: and promoted. Some of these are highlighted be l o w . • Hostility from conventionally minded So u t h e r n governments and established • Go v e r nments in the South should ret h i n k corporate and bureaucratic interests are still the promotion of artificial pesticides and holding back the potential of organic and fe r tilisers on poorer farmers throu g h ag r oecological agriculture. extension workers, subsidies and media campaigns, and at the very least rem o v e • Many Southern-based NGOs prom o t i n g some of the barriers to NGO activity that or ganic and agroecological approaches face cu r rently hinder the growth of the orga n i c s crippling funding shortages, and are se c t o r . At best, Southern governments should pr evented from continuing their work often begin to re-orient their priorities – for want of very small amounts of money in educational, institutional and legal – comparison to that spent in the prom o t i o n to w a r ds promoting ecological and of conventional agriculture. sustainable agriculture. • Mechanisms for transferring indigenous • Wh e r e de factoor ganic farming is practised, knowledge from one locale to another need it is vital to help farmers develop self- fu r ther development and res o u r cing. confidence in their traditional knowledge so that they do not immediately switch to chemicals once they can affo r d them, as a 6 result of having been told for years that how the movement develops over the industrial farming is ‘more modern’ . coming years, and developing synergi e s between social and environmental objectives. • Security of land tenure is essential for fa r mers to have sufficient incentive to • In addition, an agreement within the orga n i c develop long-term organic management movement itself is needed on the inclusion of strategies, and in areas where inequality wider social and environmental criteria such of ownership is especially pronounced land as ‘food miles’ and workers’ rights. ref o r m will be necessary for ecological Looking to the future fa r ming to become widesprea d . The dominant international worldview amongst • Much greater support must be devoted to policy-makers and opinion-formers still holds those grassroots NGOs and projects that are that food security for a growing world the driving force behind the development of population can only be achieved by prom o t i n g or ganic agriculture in the South. This ever more intensive chemical-dependent req u i r es a further mobilisation within ag r i c u l t u r e. The evidence from this rep o r t is No r th e r n-based agencies to develop their that this viewpoint is dangerously flawed. own projects and work with Southern- b a s e d Fi r s t l y , the relationship between food security pa r tners, and – crucially – greater financial and food production is complex – famines su p p o r t from the relevant funding bodies. occur because people lack the money to buy food, not solely because their own crops have • Various successful projects are beginning to failed. Secondly, chemical-dependent agriculture transfer the economic benefits of food is fundamentally unsustainable. It exchanges pr ocessing to organic farmers in the South. lo n g - t e r m ecological health (involving issues These include the making of fruit into like biodiversity and topsoil quality) for short- co n s e r ves in the Andes to the extraction of te r m productivity gains, and new developments sunflower oil from hand-powered mills in in the genetic manipulation Kenya. More res o u r ces and investment in of plants and animals are set to worsen this these frequently low-tech solutions could di s a s t r ous trajectory. Thirdl y , food security have significant paybacks for ecological is endangered by encouragement for farme r s fa r mers acros s to opt for high yielding mono-crops req u i r i n g the Third Wor l d . substantial inputs. If the crops fail farmers are in danger of losing their land to cover bad • Better links need to be fostered between debts – further contributing to rural-urban drift di f fe r ent disciplines and approaches within in the South. the ‘alternative’ agricultural movement – bringing together (for example) fores t e r s , Ul t i m a t e l y , we believe the key aim at a practical res e a r chers, livestock producers and level must be to knit together the diffe r en t ho r ticulturalists in regional, national and aspects and drivers of the organic and in t e r national networks. ag r oecological approach into a coheren t in t e r national movement which is capable of • The development of certification capacity in pr oviding an alternative to the conventional the South – by governments working in system. As ecological agriculture becomes more tandem with established NGOs – needs successful economically, and an increa s i n g to be boosted to prevent the need for costly number of farmers throughout the South decide ex t e r nal inspections. – independently or with assistance from NGOs – to jump off the chemicals treadmill, the • Joined-up thinking between the organic and chances of this real Green Revolution fair trade movements could be crucial in succeeding become greater every day. The Real Green Revolution 7 Ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s Development, Togo),Mª Fernanda de A.C. Fonseca(Brazil). We extend our grateful thanks to the following individuals who have helped with N M Abdul Gaffar (Stassen Natural Foods, this project,primarily through responding to Sri Lanka),Yvan Gautronneau (INRA, Lyon, our survey,but in other instances through France),Maheswar Ghimire (Ecological helping us make contact with key individuals, Services Centre, Nepal), Boghos Ghougassian providing access to libraries and databases, (Middle East Centre for the Transfer of and acting as translators. Alternative Technology, Lebanon),Nicolien van der Grijp: (Vrije Universiteit, Jacqueline Haessig Alleje (Rizal Dairy Farms, Amsterdam), Papa Gueye,(Fédération des Philippines),Mustafa Akyuz (ETKO, Agropasteurs de Diender, Senegal),Carolyn Turkey),Kossi Ahonyo (Centre de Promotion Foster (University of Wales, Aberystwyth). des Initiatives de Base et de l’Environnement, Togo),Marta Astier (Interdisciplinary Group Rob Hardy(Soil Association),Dr.Zahid for Appropriate Rural Technology, Mexico). Hossain (Proshika, Bangladesh),Liz Hoskins (Gaia Foundation). Reena Bansal (Ambootia Tea Estates, India), Da vid Barkin (Universidad Autonoma Rosie Jackson (Soil Association),Pauline Me t r opolitana, Mexico),Birgitt Boor (B i o h e r b , Jones (Kitty Seed Project, Gambia), Mariam Ge r ma n y ) , Angelina M.Briones (M A S I P E G , Jorjadze (Elkana, Georgia). Ph i l i p p i n e s ) , Edith Lammerts van Bueren (Louis Bolk Institut, Netherlands),He l e n J.G.Kanyi (Green Farming Group, Kenya), Br o u t s c hert (C a r di f f University),Kath Burton J.J.Kanjanga (Lipangwe Organic Manure (Soil Association),Ev er ard Byer (T rinidad and Demonstration Farm, Malawi) Nichole Tobago Organic Agriculture Movement). Kenton,(IIED),Mustafa Koc (Ryerson K.Cadoret (Henry Doubleday Research University, Canada)Avaz Koocheki (College Association), of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University, Iran)Jon Koshey(Spices Board of India) Tadeu Caldas,(Ecotropic, UK), Daniel Mones Cazon (FAEA, Argentina),Oscar Mao Lamin (Zhejiang Camel Transworld Mendieta Chavez (Assoc. de Organisationes Organic Food Company Limited, CHINA), de Product Ecologicos de Bolivia),Fernando Nic Lampkin (University of Wales, Cruz (Cosecha del Sol, Mexico). Aberystwyth).Marcos Lena (Brazil)Huafen Li (Agroecology Research Institute, China Alexander Daniel (Institute for Integrated Agricultural University),Judy Longbottom Rural Development, India), Sue Edwards (IIED),Emile Lutz (Planeta Verde, Brazil). (Institute for Sustainable Development, Tigray,Ethiopia),Marck van Esch(Bo Friedel Mallinckrodt (SARD Prize),Jus t o Weevil, Holland),Bo van Elzakker (Agroeco, Mantilla (Ecological and Medicinal Plant Netherlands),Lal Emmanuel (Nagenhiru Institute, Peru) , P.Ma r i a s e l v am (P e o p l e ’ s Foundation, Sri Lanka). Agricultural Farm, Tamil Nadu, India),La u r a Martinez (C a r di f f University),Pr o f . Pet e r Caporali Fabio(Universitia degli studia della Midmore (University of Wales, Aberys t w y t h ) , Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy),Ali Faisal (Hyderabad, Luiz Carlos Mior (C a r di f f University), India),Luciano Florit(Universidade Regional B.Mohan (Indian Bio Organic Tea de Blumenau, Brazil), Komla Foly As s o c i a t i o n ) . (Groupement des Jeunes pour l’Entraide et le 8