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You can also find out about how to make a donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. **Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** **eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** *****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** Title: England Under the Tudors Author: Arthur D. Innes Release Date: October, 2004 [EBook #6727] [Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] [This file was first posted on January 23, 2003] Edition: 10 Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS *** Produced by Karl Hagen, David Moynihan, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS BY ARTHUR D. INNES SOMETIME SCHOLAR OF ORIEL COLLEGE, OXFORD FOURTH EDITION INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE GENERAL EDITOR In England, as in France and Germany, the main characteristic of the last twenty years, from the point of view of the student of history, has been that new material has been accumulating much faster than it can be assimilated or absorbed. The standard histories of the last generation need to be revised, or even to be put aside as obsolete, in the light of the new information that is coming in so rapidly and in such vast bulk. But the students and researchers of to-day have shown little enthusiasm as yet for the task of re-writing history on a large scale. We see issuing from the press hundreds of monographs, biographies, editions of old texts, selections from correspondence, or collections of statistics, mediaeval and modern. But the writers who (like the late Bishop Stubbs or Professor Samuel Gardiner) undertake to tell over again the history of a long period, with the aid of all the newly discovered material, are few indeed. It is comparatively easy to write a monograph on the life of an individual or a short episode of history. But the modern student, knowing well the mass of material that he has to collate, and dreading lest he may make a slip through overlooking some obscure or newly discovered source, dislikes to stir beyond the boundary of the subject, or the short period, on which he has made himself a specialist. Meanwhile the general reading public continues to ask for standard histories, and discovers, only too often, that it can find nothing between school manuals at one end of the scale and minute monographs at the other. The series of which this volume forms a part is intended to do something towards meeting this demand. Historians will not sit down, as once they were wont, to write twenty-volume works in the style of Hume or Lingard, embracing a dozen centuries of annals. It is not to be desired that they should--the writer who is most satisfactory in dealing with Anglo-Saxon antiquities is not likely to be the one who will best discuss the antecedents of the Reformation, or the constitutional history of the Stuart period. But something can be done by judicious co-operation: it is not necessary that a genuine student should refuse to touch any subject that embraces an epoch longer than a score of years, nor need history be written as if it were an encyclopaedia, and cut up into small fragments dealt with by different hands. It is hoped that the present series may strike the happy mean, by dividing up English History into periods that are neither too long to be dealt with by a single competent specialist, nor so short as to tempt the writer to indulge in that over-abundance of unimportant detail which repels the general reader. They are intended to give something more than a mere outline of our national annals, but they have little space for controversy or the discussion of sources, save in periods such as the dark age of the 5th and 6th centuries after Christ, where the criticism of authorities is absolutely necessary if we are to arrive at any sound conclusions as to the course of history. A number of maps are to be found at the end of each volume which, as it is hoped, will make it unnecessary for the reader to be continually referring to large historical atlases--tomes which (as we must confess with regret) are not to be discovered in every private library. Genealogies and chronological tables of kings are added where necessary. C. OMAN CONTENTS INTRODUCTION THE TUDOR PERIOD, 1485-1603 An era of Revolutions--The Intellectual Movement--The Reformation and Counter-Reformation--The New World--The Constitution--Nobility, Clergy, and Gentry--International Relations. CHAPTER I HENRY VII (i), 1485-1492-THE NEW DYNASTY 1485. Henry’s Title to the Crown-- Measures to strengthen the Title--1486. Marriage--The King and his Advisers --Henry’s enemies--1487. Lambert Simnel--The State of Europe--France and Brittany--1488. Henry intervenes cautiously--England and Spain--1489. Preparations for war with France--Spanish treaty of Medina del Campo--The Allies inert--1490. Object of Henry’s Foreign Policy--1491. Apparent Defeat --1492. Henry’s bellicose Attitude--Treaty of Etaples. CHAPTER II HENRY VII (ii), 1492-1499-PERKIN WARBECK Ireland; 1485--1487-1492. The Earl of Kildare--1491. Perkin Warbeck’s Appearance--Riddle of his imposture-- 1492-5. Perkin and Margaret of Burgundy--Diplomatic Intrigues--Ireland: Poynings, 1494-6--1495. Survey of the Situation--Perkin attempts Invasion --Success of Henry’s Diplomacy--1496. Perkin and the King of Scots--A Scottish Incursion--1497. The Cornish rising--Its suppression--Perkin’s final effort and failure--The Scottish Truce--The End of Perkin Warbeck: 1497-9--1498. The situation. CHAPTER III HENRY VII (iii), 1498-1509-THE DYNASTY ASSURED Scotland and England-- Henry’s Scottish Policy--France and Scotland--Relations in 1498--Marriage Negotiations; 1498-1503--Marriage of James IV. and Margaret, 1503--Spain and England; Marriage Negotiations, 1488-1499--France, 1499--Spain; Marriage Negotiations, 1499-1501--1501; the Spanish Marriage--1502. New Marriage Schemes--1504. The Papal Dispensation--The Earl of Suffolk; 1499-1505--1505. Henry’s Position--Schemes for Re-marriage--1506: The Archduke Philip in England--Philip’s Death--1507-8. Matrimonial Projects --The League of Cambrai--Wolsey--1509. Death of Henry. CHAPTER IV HENRY VII (iv), 1485-1509--ASPECTS OF THE REIGN 1485; Henry’s Position --Studied Legality--Policy of Lenity--Repression of the Nobles--The Star-Chamber--Henry’s Use of Parliament--Financial Exactions--Sources of Revenue--Henry’s Economics--Trade Theories--Commercial Policy--The Netherlands Trade--The Hansa--The Navigation Acts--Voyages of Discovery-- The Rural Revolution--The Church--Henry and Rome--Learning and Letters-- Appreciation. CHAPTER V HENRY VIII (i), 1509-1527--EGO ET REX MEUS Europe in 1509--England’s Position--The New King--Inauguration of the reign--Henry and the Powers-- 1512. Dorset’s Expedition--Rise of Wolsey--1513. The French War--Scotland (1499-1513)--The Flodden Campaign--The Battle--Its Effect--Recovery of English Prestige--1514. Foreign Intrigues--The French Alliance and Marriage --1515. Francis I.--Marignano--1516-7. European changes--1518-9. Wolsey’s Success--1519. Charles V.--The Imperial Election--1520. Wolsey’s Triumph-- Rival Policies--Field of the Cloth of Gold--Wolsey’s Aims--Charles V. and Francis I.--Scotland: 1513-1520--1520-1. Affairs Abroad--1521. Buckingham --Wolsey’s Diplomacy--1522. A Papal Election--War with France--Scotland-- 1523. Progress of the War--Election of Clement VII.--1524. Wolsey’s difficulties--Intrigues in Scotland--1525. Pavia--The Amicable Loan--A Diplomatic struggle--1526-7. Wolsey’s success--A new Factor. CHAPTER VI HENRY VIII (ii), 1509-1532--BIRTH OF THE REFORMATION _The Reformation in England_--Its true Character--Religious Decadence--The Scholar- Reformers--Ecclesiastical Demoralisation--Monastic Corruption--The Proofs--Corruption of Doctrine--Evidence from Colet and More--Later Evidence--Dean Colet--His Sermon: 1512--Erasmus--The _Utopia_: 1516-- Exaggerated attacks--Clerical Privileges--Tentative Reforms--The Educational Movement--Wolsey and the Reformation--_The Lutheran Revolt_: 1517--Luther’s Defiance--The Diet of Worms; 1521--The German Peasants’ Revolt; 1524--Its Effect in England--1525. The Empire and the Papacy--The Sack of Rome, 1527--Diet of Augsburg, 1530-The Swiss Reformers; 1520-1530--English Heretics Abroad--Contrasted Aims. CHAPTER VII HENRY VIII (iii), 1527-1529--THE FALL OF WOLSEY "The King’s Affair"--Story of the Marriage--Anne Boleyn--1527. The King Prepares--Theoretical Excuses--The Need of an Heir--The Plea of Invalidity--Conjunction of Incentives--The Orleans Betrothal--Conclusions--The first Plan--The second Plan--Knight’s Mission--Its Failure--The Pope and the Cardinal--1528. Gardiner’s Mission--Wolsey’s Critical Position--Campeggio and Wolsey-- Henry’s Attitude--1529. The Trial--The Storm Gathers--The Storm Breaks-- Wolsey’s fall--1530. Wolsey’s Death--His Achievement--Appreciation of Wolsey. CHAPTER VIII HENRY VIII (iv), 1529-1533--THE BREACH WITH ROME 1529. No Revolt Yet-- Growth of Anti-clericalism--Thomas Cranmer--Appeal to the Universities --The New Parliament--Thomas Cromwell--Pope, Clergy, and King--Double Campaign Opens--1530. Answer of Universities--Preoccupation of the Clergy--Menace of Praemunire--1531. "Only Supreme Head"--Proceedings in Parliament--1532. Parliament--Supplication against the Ordinaries-- Resistance of Clergy--"Submission of the Clergy"--Mortmain, Benefit of Clergy, and Annates--The Powers and the Divorce--The Turn of the Year-- 1533. The Crisis--Restraint of Appeals--Cranmer Archbishop--The Decisive Breach. CHAPTER IX HENRY VIII (v), 1533-1540--MALLEUS MONACHORUM 1533. Ecclesiastical Parties --Pope or King?--1534. Confirmatory Acts--The Pope’s Last Word--The Nun of Kent--The Act of Succession--The Oath Refused--The "Bishop of Rome"-- Parliament--Treasons Act--1529-1534: The New Policy--Thomas Cromwell--1535. More and Fisher--Cromwell Vicar--General--The German Lutherans--Overtures-- Visitation of the Monasteries--1536. Suppression of Lesser Houses--The Evidence--The Black Book--The Consequent Commission--The Policy--Anne Boleyn Threatened--Her Condemnation and Death--The Succession--Punishment of Heresy--The Progressive Movement--The Ten Articles--The Lincolnshire Rising--The Pilgrimage of Grace--Aske Beguiled--1537. Suppression of the Rising--Turned to Account--Scotland, 1533-6--1536-7. Naval Measures--1537. An Heir--1538. Diplomatic Moves--The Exeter Conspiracy--1539. Cromwell Strikes--Menace of Invasion--The King and Lutheranism--The Six Articles-- Final Suppression of Monasteries--Royal Proclamations Act--Anne of Cleves-- 1540. The Marriage--Fall of Cromwell. CHAPTER X HENRY VIII (vi), 1540-1547--HENRY’S LAST YEARS 1540. Katharine Howard--The King his own Minister--England and the Powers--Scotland and England; 1541-- Cardinal Beton--1542--Solway Moss--1543. Henry’s Scottish Policy--Alliance with Charles V.--French War--1544. Domestic Affairs--Intrigues in Scotland --Sack of Edinburgh--French War--Peace of Crepy--1545. Ancram Moor--A French Armada--1546. Peace concluded--1532-1549. _Europe_--Lutherans and the Papacy--Conference of Ratisbon-Council of Trent: first stages-- Death of Luther-Charles and the League of Schmalkald--The Jesuit Order-- Calvin--_England_: the Ecclesiastical Revolution--Progressives and Reactionaries--1543. The King’s Book-1546. Surrey--1547. Death of Henry. CHAPTER XI HENRY VIII (vii), 1509-1547--ASPECTS OF HENRY’S REIGN _Ireland_: 1509-1520--Surrey in Ireland, 1520--Irish Policy, 1520-1534--Fitzgerald’s Revolt--1535-1540: Lord Leonard Grey--1540: St. Leger--"King of Ireland"-- _England_: Wolsey’s work--The Army--The Navy--The New World-- Absolutism--The Parliamentary Sanction--Depression of the Nobles-- Parliament and the Purse--Finance--The Land--Learning and Letters--The _Utopia_--Surrey and Wyatt--_Appreciation of Henry VIII._: Morals and Character--Abilities and Achievement--Dominant Personality-- Conclusions. CHAPTER XII EDWARD VI (i), 1547-1549--THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET 1547. The New Government-- Relations with France and Scotland--with Charles V.--Somerset’s Scottish Policy--Pinkie--The Advanced Reformers--Benevolent Legislation-- Ecclesiastical Legislation--1548. Progress of the Reformation--Somerset’s Ideas--The French in Scotland--The Augsburg Interim--Parliament--1549. A New Liturgy--The Treason of the Lord Admiral: 1547-9--1549--Troubles in the Provinces--The Western Rising--Ket’s Insurrection--The Protector’s Attitude--The Council attacks him--His Fall--Ireland: St. Leger and Bellingham. CHAPTER XIII EDWARD VI (ii), 1549-1553--THE DUDLEY ASCENDANCY 1549. Foreign Relations-- State of England--1550. Terms with France--Protestant zeal of Warwick-- Treasons Act--Protestant Fanaticism-1551. The Council and Charles V.--His Difficulties--Groups among the Reformers--Somerset--His final overthrow-- 1552. Execution of Somerset--Pacification of Passau--English Neutrality-- The Reformation: its Limits hitherto--Revision of the Liturgy-- Nonconformity--Parliament--1553. A New Parliament--Northumberland’s Programme--Plot to change the Succession--Adhesion of King and Council-- Death of Edward VI.--Willoughby and Chancellor. CHAPTER XIV MARY (i), 1553-1555-THE SPANISH MARRIAGE The Marian Tragedies--1553. Proclamation of Queen Jane--The People support Mary--Collapse of the Plot-- Mary’s Leniency--Cause of the Popular Loyalty--Problems: Marriage and the Reformation--Possible Claimants--Moderate Reaction--Proposed Spanish Match --Parliament: Repeal of Edward’s Legislation--1554. Wyatt’s Rebellion and the Lady Elizabeth--Subsequent Severities--The Marriage Treaty-Pole, Renard, and Gardiner--Public Tension--Parliament; Reconciliation with Rome --Reaction consummated, 1555. CHAPTER XV MARY (ii), 1555-1558-THE PERSECUTION Mary’s early Policy--The Persecution-- Who was Responsible?--Comparison with other Persecutions--Some Characteristic Features--1555. The First Martyrs--Trial of Cranmer--Ridley and Latimer--Fate of Cranmer--His Record and Character--Policy of Philip-- Paul IV.--Mary disappointed of an Heir--A New Parliament--Gardiner’s Death and Character--Mary’s Difficulties--1556. The Dudley Conspiracy--Foreign Complications--1557. War with France--1558. Loss of Calais--National Depression--Mary’s Death and Character. CHAPTER XVI ELIZABETH (i), 1558-1561-A PASSAGE PERILOUS 1558. Accession--Mary Stewart’s Claim--Strength of Elizabeth’s Position-- Sir William Cecil--Finance--Philip II. and Elizabeth’s Marriage--The Religious Question--A Protestant Policy--1559. Parliament: Act of Supremacy--The Prayer-Book--France and Peace--State of Scotland--Arran and Elizabeth--The Archduke Charles--Wynter in the Forth--1560. Difficulties of France--Vacillations of Elizabeth--Siege of Leith--Treaty of Edinburgh-- Elizabeth’s Methods--The Dudley Imbroglio--The Huguenots--The Pope--1561. Return of Mary to Scotland. CHAPTER XVII ELIZABETH (ii), 1561-1568-QUEENS AND SUITORS 1561. The Situation--Council of Trent--France; State of Parties--1561-8. France: Catholics and Huguenots --The Netherlands: Philip’s Policy--Prelude to War--1561. The Queens’ suitors--1562. Mary in Scotland--1562-3. Elizabeth and the Huguenots--The English Succession-1564. Darnley and Others--1565. The Darnley Marriage-- Mary and Murray--1566. The Murder of Rizzio--1567. Kirk o’ Field--The Bothwell Marriage--Mary at Loch Leven--Murray Regent--1568. Langside, and the Flight to England--1562-8. Protestantism of Elizabeth’s Government-- Religious Parties--1566-7. Parliament and the Queen’s Marriage--The Queen and the Archduke. CHAPTER XVIII ELIZABETH (iii), 1568-1572--THE CATHOLIC CHALLENGE 1568. Mary in England--A Commission of Enquiry--Proceedings at York--Attitude of Philip--The Commission at Westminster--Comment on the Enquiry--Seizure of Spanish Treasure--1569. The Incident passed over--The Northern Rebellion--1570. Murder of Murray--The Bull of Deposition--The Anjou Match--1570-1. The Ridolfi Plot--1571. Parliament--Collapse of the Anjou Match--The Ridolfi Plot Develops--1572. Parliament and Mary Stewart--Lepanto--The Netherlands Revolt--The Alen(cid:231)on Match--St. Bartholomew. CHAPTER XIX ELIZABETH (iv), 1572-1578--VARIUM ET MUTABILE Elizabeth’s Diplomacy--The Queen’s Subjects--Development of Protestantism--1572. Katharine de Medici --The Aim of Elizabeth--England and the Massacre--Spain seeks Amity--1573. A Spanish Alliance--Scotland: End of the Marian Party--The Netherlands, France, and Spain--The Netherlands, England, and Spain--1574. Amicable Relations of England and Spain--1575. A Deadlock--1576. Attitude of the Nation--The Queen evades War--Alen(cid:231)on and the Huguenots--The Netherlands and Don John--Elizabeth’s Attitude--1577. The Political Kaleidoscope--The Archduke Matthias--1578. Mendoza--Orange and Alen(cid:231)on--Death of Don John-- NOTE: The Portuguese Succession. CHAPTER XX ELIZABETH (v), 1558-1578--IRISH AND ENGLISH 1549-58--1558. Shan O’Neill-- The Antrim Scots--1560-1. Shan and the Government--1562. Shan in England-- 1563-5. Shan’s supremacy in Ulster recognised--1566. Sir Henry Sidney Deputy--Overthrow of O’Neill--Catholicism in Irish Politics--1568. The Colonising of Munster--1569. Insurrection in Munster--Ireland and Philip-- Experimental Presidencies--1573-4. Essex in Ulster--1576-8. Sidney’s second Deputyship. CHAPTER XXI ELIZABETH (vi), 1578-1583--THE PAPAL ATTACK 1579. The Union of Utrecht-- 1578. The Matrimonial Juggle--Alen(cid:231)on’s wooing--1579. Popular Hostility to the Match--Loyalty to Elizabeth--Yea and Nay--The Papal Plan of Campaign-- 1580. Philip annexes Portugal--_Ireland_: 1579; the Desmond Rising-- 1580: Fire and Sword--Development of the Rebellion--Smerwick: and after-- _Scotland_: 1579-1581--_England_: 1580--The Jesuit Mission-- Walsingham at Work--1581. An Anti-papal Parliament--Alen(cid:231)on redivivus--His visit to England--1582. Alen(cid:231)on in the Netherlands--1583. Exit Alen(cid:231)on--Scotland. CHAPTER XXII ELIZABETH (vii), 1583-1587-THE END OF QUEEN MARY 1583. Throgmorton’s Conspiracy--Catholics abroad sanguine--Division in their Counsels--The Plot discovered--1584. Assassination of Orange--The "Association"--1585. Its Ratification--France: The Holy League--Elizabeth’s agreement with the States--Drake’s Cartagena Raid--Elizabeth’s Intrigues-1586. Leicester in the Netherlands--The Trapping of Mary--Babington’s Plot--Trial of the Queen of Scots--Elizabeth and Mary--1587. Execution of Mary. CHAPTER XXIII ELIZABETH (viii), 1558-1587-THE SEAMEN The New World--The English Marine before Elizabeth--The Royal Navy--Privateering--"Piracy"--Reprisal--The Explorers--Spain in America--John Hawkins, 1562-6--San Juan d’Ulloa, 1567-- Francis Drake--Darien Expedition, 1572--Oxenham, 1575--_Drake’s Great Voyage_: 1577--Drake in the Pacific, 1578--in the North Pacific, 1579-- his Return, 1580--_Various Voyages_: 1576-1587--Raleigh--Humphrey Gilbert--Virginia. CHAPTER XXIV ELIZABETH (ix), 1587-1588-THE ARMADA 1587. Results of Mary’s Death-- Attitude of Philip--Attitude of Elizabeth--The situation--Drake’s Cadiz Expedition--Negotiations with Parma--Elizabeth’s Diplomacy--French Affairs --Preparations for the Armada--1588. Plans of Campaign--Forces of the Antagonists--The New Tactics--Defective Arrangements--The Land Forces--May to July--The Fleets off Plymouth--The Fight off Portland--The Fight off the Isle of Wight--Effect on the Fleets--The Armada at Calais--The Battle off Gravelines--Flight and Ruin of the Armada. CHAPTER XXV ELIZABETH (x), 1588-1598-BRITANNIA VICTRIX After the Armada--A new Phase--Death of Leicester--France, 1588-9--England aggressive--Alternative Naval Policies--Don Antonio--Plan of the Lisbon Expedition--1589. The Expedition; Corunna and Peniche--The Lisbon Failure--Policies and Persons-- France, 1589-1593--1590. Death of Walsingham--The Year’s Operations--1591. Grenville’s Last Fight--France, 1590-3--Operations, 1592-4--Survey, 1589-94 --Spain and the English Catholics--Scottish Intrigues--Ireland: 1583-1592 --Tyrone, 1592-4--1595. Drake’s Last Voyage--1596. The Cadiz Expedition-- Ireland--The Second Armada--1597. The Island Voyage--1598. Condition of Spain--Death of Philip--Death of Burghley: Appreciation. CHAPTER XXVI ELIZABETH (xi), 1598-1603--THE QUEEN’S LAST YEARS A new Generation--1598. Ireland--The Earl of Essex--1599. Essex in Ireland--His Downfall--Catholic Factions--Philip III.--1600--Ireland--Succession Intrigues--The End of Essex--Robert Cecil--1601. Ireland: Rebellion broken--1602. The Succession --Last Intrigues--1603. Death of Elizabeth. CHAPTER XXVII ELIZABETH (xii), 1558-1603--LITERATURE Birth of a National Literature-- _Prose_: before 1579--1579-1589--_Euphues_--Sidney--Hooker-- _Verse_: before 1579--1579-1590--_Drama_: before Elizabeth-- early Elizabethan--_The Younger Generation>_: pervading Characteristics Displayed in the Drama--and other Fields--Breadth of view--Patriotism--Normal Types. CHAPTER XXVIII ELIZABETH (xiii), 1558-1603--ASPECTS OF THE REIGN Features of the Reign-- _Religion_: State and Church--The State and the Catholics--The Church and the Puritans--Archbishop Whitgift--The Persecutions--_Economic Progress_--Retrenchment--Wealth and Poverty--Trade Restrictions and Development--_Travellers_--Maritime Expansion--_The Constitution-- Elizabeth_: her People--her Ministers--Appreciation. APPENDICES APPENDIX A--TABLES I. CONTEMPORARY RULERS--1475-1542 II. CONTEMPORARY RULERS--1542-1603 III. THE LENNOX STEWARTS IV. HOWARDS AND BOLEYNS V. HABSBURGS VI. VALOIS AND BOURBONS VII. GUISES DESCENDANTS OF EDWARD III. THE PORTUGUESE SUCCESSION APPENDIX B CLAIMS TO THE THRONE APPENDIX C THE QUEEN OF SCOTS APPENDIX D BIBLIOGRAPHY MAPS I. THE WORLD: AS KNOWN _circa_ 1485-1603. II. WESTERN EUROPE: _circa_ 1558 III. ENGLAND AND IRELAND IV. SPANISH AMERICA: _circa 1580 V. THE LOW COUNTRIES AND THE CHANNEL THE FLODDEN CAMPAIGN INDEX ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS INTRODUCTION THE TUDOR PERIOD, 1485-1603 [Sidenote: An era of Revolutions] The historian of the future will, perhaps, affirm that the nineteenth century, with the last years of the eighteenth, has been a period more fraught with momentous events in the development of the nations than any equal period since the Christian era commenced. Yet striking as are the developments witnessed by the last four generations, the years when England was ruled by Princes of the House of Tudor have a history hardly if at all less momentous. For though what we call the Tudor period, from 1485 to 1603, is determined by a merely dynastic title affecting England alone, the reign of that dynasty happens to coincide in point of time with the greatest territorial revolution on record, a religious revolution unparalleled since the rise of Mohammed, and an intellectual activity to match which we must go back to the great days of Hellas, or forward to the nineteenth century: revolutions all of them not specifically English, but affecting immediately every nation in Europe; while one of them extended itself to every continent on the globe. Moreover, the accompanying social revolution, though comparatively superficial, was only a little less marked than the others. Nor was there any country in Europe more influenced by the general Revolution in any one of its aspects than England. _Nihil per saltum_ is no doubt as true of historical movements as of