THE PROCESS OF WORKING CLASS FORMATION IN ALGERIA Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Leicester by Layachi Anser M.A. (Leicester) Department of Sociology University of Leicester March 1992 UMI Number: U041104 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Disscrrlâtiûn Publishing UMI U041104 Published by ProQuest LLC 2015. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 1 s Abstract THE PROCESS OF WORKING CLASS FORMATION IN ALGERIA. Layachi Anser The main question raised in this study is that of whether under conditions of colonial domination, underdevelopment and integration into the world capitalist system there was a possibility for the emergence of a working class in Algeria. This study has shown that the conditions for the emergence and development of a working class existed in Algeria since the colonial period. In this early period the processes of pauperization and proletarianization of large sections of the population through land expropriation and destruction of crafts and local communities have led to the formation of the first groups of wage labour on colonial farms and enterprises. However, the process of working class formation was hindered by the uneven development of colonial capitalism, political repression, racial discrimination as well as internal cleavages based on ethnicity and religion. The post-independence period provided new possibilities for the process of working class formation yet it has, at the same time, revealed its limitations. These were related to the weakness of the working class and the hostile political and economic environment. The experience of Self-management and the struggles which developed around it highlighted the extent to which specific historical conditions have affected working class formation. However, a new impetus to this process was provided by the rapid and intensive process of industrialization. The working class-in-formation not only saw its size expanding may times over in a short period of time (1966-82), becoming one of the main social groupings in the Algerian social structure, but has also acquired a rich and varied experience through its struggles. Despite many unfavourable conditions such as, recency of industrialization, disorganization, subordination of unions, and continued influence of traditional structures the Algerian industrial workers have developed embryonic forms of class consciousness expressing their common identity and shared interests. They have also shown an awareness of societal division and cleavages based on an unequal access to resources, generating antagonisms and conflicts. Most importantly, a majority among workers developed positive orientations toward collective forms of resistance and were prepared given the "right" conditions to engage in forms of collective action. Although expressed views on radical forms of resistance such as strikes, were not too favourable, these must be understood in the historical and situational context of the time. Overall, Algerian workers despite differences relating to the environment, working conditions and management policies, have shown a great deal of cohesion and homogeneity. New conditions have emerged recently following the collapse of the one-party state, an achievement for which part of the credit, at least, must go to the Algerian workers. These emergent conditions offer the working class new possibilities for an autonomous development leading to the realization of its potentialities as a major force in the Algerian social structure. To the memory of my father TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknovledgemen t s List o£ Abbreviations List of Tables INTRODUCTION PART ONE; The Historical Emergence of The Working Class CHAPTER ONE: The Relevance of Class Analysis in Dependent Social Formations 12 1.1- The Elite Approach 1.2- The Class Approach Class as a relation of power Class as a relation in the World System CHAPTER TWO: Colonialism and Class Formation 50 2.1- Colonial Capitalism and working class formation 2.2- Labour Movement under Colonial Domination 2.3- Nationalism and the Labour Movement CHAPTER THREE: General Conditions of Class Formation (1962-66) 99 3.1- The Economy After Independence 3.2- The Class Structure and Class Strategies I 3.3- Self-management and Class Consciousness ? CHAPTER FOUR: The Working Class and The State 136 4.1- The State and Private Capital 4.2- The Government and Workers' Strikes 4.3- U.G.T.A Facing Party and State Hegemony CHAPTER FIVE: Industrialization and The Working Class 161 5.1- Foundations and Objectives of a Development Policy 5.2- Changes in The Social Structure 5.3- General Characteristics of Working Class Formation PART TWO: Class Consciousness and Action CHAPTER SIX: On Survey and Method 194 6.1- Limitations of the Survey Method 6.2- Limitations of the Present Survey 6.3- General Characteristics of The Workforce 6.4- The Plants Surveyed CHAPTER SEVEN: PERCEPTIONS OF WORK, TECHNOLOGY AND AUTHORITY 226 7.1- The Nature of Work 7.2- Mechanization and Its Effects 7.3- Perceptions of Authority Relations CHAPTER EIGHT: Wage Condition, Mobility andA spirations 282 8.1- The Wage Condition 8.2- Work Aspirations and Mobility 8.3- Children's Education and Careers CHAPTER NINE: Reference Groups, Solidarity and Attitudes to Trade Unionism 330 9.1- Reference Groups 9.2- Solidarity and Interests 9.3- Participation and Attitudes to Trade Unionism CHAPTER TEN: Class Consciousness and Action 384 10.1- Class Identity 10.2- Societal Division and Antagonisms 10.3- Class Action CHAPTER ELEVEN: Conclusion 443 APPENDICES 461 1- Annexed Tables 2- Interview Schedule BIBLIOGRAPHY 485 Acknovledgemen t s This research project could only have been realized with the invaluable help and support from many people. Professor Terrence, J. Johnson has closely followed this research from its first stages until it was completed. His theoretical and methodological knowledge provided guidance, support and inspiration leaving a lasting impression on this work. I should like also to extend my thanks to all those who helped in carrying out field work in Algeria. Most particularly, the workers in the four plants surveyed who accepted to be interviewed, and management for practical help. My students of the third and fourth years of B.A. Sociology (1985), who, as interviewers, helped in carrying out the survey. Finally, I am grateful to my family; Louisa, Yasmine and Youghortha who endured the pressure for many years and generously supported me throughout this period. This work presents a modest but new contribution to the study of the working class in modern Algeria. It goes without saying that any error of fact or interpretation is entirely my own. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS The following abbreviations have been used for convenience throughout the thesis. Association Algeienne de recherche Démographique, Economique et Sociale. AGTA Amide Generale des Travailleurs Algériens. ALN Armee de Liberation Nationale. BCA Banque Centrale d'Algérie. CAD Caisse Algérienne de Développement. CCAA Conseil Communal d'Animation d'Autogestion. CFTC Confederation Française des Travailleurs Chretiens. CGT Confederation Generale du Travail. CGTU Confederation Generale du Travail Unifiée. CNRA Conseil National de la Revolution Algérienne. DCS Direction Generale des Statistiques. DSF Dependent Social Formations. ENA Etoile Nord Africaine. FLN Front National de Liberation. FO Force Ouvrière. FMS Federation Mondiale des Syndicats. GDP Gross Domestic Production. GPRA Gouvernment Provisoire de la Republique Algérienne. ILO International Labour Organization. MNA Mouvement National Algérien. MPAT Ministère de la Planification et de l'Amenagement du Territoire. MTLD Mouvement pour le Triomphe des libertés Démocratiques. GAS Organisation de l'Armee Secrete. ONS Office National des Statistiques. PCA Parti Communiste Algérien. PCF Parti Communiste Français. PPA Parti du Peuple Algérien. RGPH Recencement General de la Population et de l'Habitat. SAP Société Agricole de Prévoyance. SGT Statut General du Travailleur. SNS Société Nationale de Sederurgie.