The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Ornament, by James Ward This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license Title: The Principles of Ornament Author: James Ward Editor: George Aitchison Release Date: August 1, 2019 [EBook #60034] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT *** Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images available at The Internet Archive) Contents. Appendix Glossary of Terms Used in Ornament Index of Illustrations (In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers] clicking on the image will bring up a larger version.) (etext transcriber's note) THE PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT {i} {ii} {iii} {iv} [Image unavailable.] Patera in silver from the Hildesheim treasure. Frontispiece. THE PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT BY JAMES WARD HEAD-MASTER OF THE MACCLESFIELD SCHOOL OF ART EDITED BY GEORGE AITCHISON, A.R.A. PROFESSOR OF ARCHITECTURE AT THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS NEW AND ENLARGED EDITION NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 153-157 Fifth Avenue 1896 Richard Clay & Sons, Limited, London & Bungay. EDITOR’S PREFACE As Examiner on the Principles of Ornament at the Science and Art Department, I found there was no good English text-book on the subject, so the necessary information could only be picked up by extensive reading and independent observation, and these are not to be expected from young students. Certain parts of the subject have been admirably treated by Moody in his Lectures and Lessons on Art,—in fact I know of no book where the subjects treated show such keen observation and profound knowledge, but they are embedded in lectures on other subjects, and the book has no index. Having written the original Syllabus on the Principles of Ornament, I was disposed to write a text-book, had not other avocations prevented me. Last year Mr. Ward’s book on The Elementary Principles of Ornament was sent me, and though it was a useful book and had a glossary, it contained some doubtful passages, and being printed from a course of lectures it was a little too discursive. In writing the new Syllabus this year I could not recommend it for a text-book as it stood, but as I thought it would be unfair to Mr. Ward for me to write a text-book after the trouble he had taken, I consented to edit a new edition. I may here say that I have left Mr. Ward’s musical comparisons as I found them, and have not revised his views on Ogham, and Runic, nor those on the symbolic ornament of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Siamese, Burmese, Japanese, {v} {vi} {vii} {viii} Hebrews, Buddhists, and Brahmins. George Aitchison. EDITOR’S PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION I have carefully revised the book without altering its substance. I have also added an Appendix containing a few remarks on the Orders of Architecture, with illustrations of some of the best classical examples; believing that this would be useful, not only to carvers and modellers who have to execute enrichments on Architecture, but to all students. The ornamented parts of the Greek and Roman Orders, figure sculpture apart, show how two cognate nations, each with transcendent abilities but of an entirely different range, abstracted the beauties of plants, and conferred them on stone and marble to emphasize and adorn the rigid forms of Architecture; how the Greeks seized on the exquisite beauties of flowers, and adapted them, so as to retain the greatest purity of form, and used them in the most sparing way; while the Romans, or Greeks working under Roman dictation, used them lavishly to procure magnificence; and eventually were so prodigal with their ornament as to defeat the end in view, as little of the architecture was left plain; to act as a foil to the enrichment; while from the quantity employed no time could be spared to perfect the ornament. The power of abstracting and applying the beauties of floral form seems now to be entirely lost. The great art of the present day seems to consist in copying nature as exactly as it can be copied in hard materials to make a colourable imitation; but in such a way that its highest beauties are lost. Mr. Ward has added several illustrations which his experience shows him will be useful to students, and he has added an Appendix on the construction of some geometrical figures, and the methods of drawing conic sections and spirals. George Aitchison. AUTHOR’S PREFACE In the preface to the first edition of this book, I stated that the contents consisted of a series of class lectures given to art students. These lectures were not originally intended for publication. I was, however, strongly advised to publish them, and did so without any attempt at revision, under the title of Elementary Principles of Ornament. Although there are many excellent text-books on ornament published at the present time, there are none that exclusively treat of the theory, or what is known as the “principles of ornament”; this belief is shared with me by many of the principal art masters in the country, and by many gentlemen whose names stand high in the list of decorative artists, judging from the numerous letters and opinions I received after the publication of the first edition. I was gratified to find that the book received a favourable recognition from the authorities of the Science and Art Department. The present edition has been edited and revised by Professor Aitchison, A.R.A., the Government Examiner in the subject and Professor of Architecture at the Royal Academy. To that gentleman I here desire to record my grateful thanks for his invaluable services in connection with the book, and, I am sure I shall be right if I add, the thanks of all students in ornamental art. Professor Aitchison has also written the new introductory chapter. I wish here also to express my best thanks to John Vinycomb, Esq., F.R.S.A.I., for his valuable suggestions to me in the chapter on symbolic ornament. The illustrations must only be accepted as blackboard diagrams, they are merely intended as aids in explanation of the text; more illustrations have been added to this edition, a few that appeared in the former edition have been left out. J. Ward. CONTENTS PAGE Introductory Chapter. By the Editor 1 CHAPTER I Definition of Ornament—Methods of Expression—Outlined, Flat, Coloured, Relieved, and Shaded Ornament—Definition of Arabesques 19 CHAPTER II Elementary forms used in Ornament—Straight and Curved line Ornament—The Greek Honeysuckle, &c. 26 CHAPTER III The Laws of Composition in Ornament enumerated and explained 40 CHAPTER IV The Shapes and Decoration of Mouldings—Fluted and Reeded Ornament—Treatment of Floors, Walls, and Ceilings—Relief Work on Ceilings 50 {ix} {x} {xi} {xii} {xiii} {xiv} CHAPTER V Outline and Division of Surfaces—Proportion of Rectangular Surfaces—Spacing and Decoration of Circular and Curved Objects —Decoration of Various Shapes, of Planes and of Large Flat Surfaces—Abuses of Purely Natural Forms applied to Articles of Use—Application of Ornament and Materials in Wall Decoration 68 CHAPTER VI The Six Classes or Great Divisions of Ornament 80 CHAPTER VII The Application of Plants in Ornament—Plants Used in Historic Ornament—The Acanthus—Its Use by the Ancients in Capitals, Candelabra, and on Flat Surfaces—Modern Use and Treatment of the Acanthus 108 CHAPTER VIII The Symbolic and Mnemonic Classes of Ornament 130 CHAPTER IX Raphael’s Arabesques—Christian Symbolism—Comparison of Symbolic and Æsthetic Ornament 138 Appendix on the Orders of Architecture 145 A Chapter on the Construction of Figures and Curves in Practical Plane Geometry 176 Glossary 199 INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS A, B, C, D, E, F, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, V, W. Figs. Acanthus leaf (Greek), from a capital of the Tower of the Winds 151 Acanthus leaf (Greek), with flowers from a capital of the Choragic Monument of Lysikrates 152 Acanthus (Mollis), from nature 149 Acanthus (Spinosus), from nature 150 Acanthus, soft-leaved, from the soffit of the architrave at the Temple of Jupiter Stator 155 Acanthus used on candelabra and small pillars 156, 158 Acanthus, modern varieties of sea-weed and poppy-leaved Acanthus 159 Acanthus, olive-leaf variety, from a Roman capital 153 Acanthus, olive-leaf variety, from a capital of Mars Ultor 154, 187 Arrangement of a wall-paper pattern 84 Arrangements for wall-paper or room decoration, improper 80-83 Astragal or bead moulding, with its ornament 77 Bead and reel 78 Book-cover (German), sixteenth century 124 Border, upright lily, Greco-Roman 120 Borders, Greek 113-117 Borders of Medallions in enamelled earthenware by Luca Della Robbia 144 Borders, Persian 118, 119 Borders derived from the laurel 140, 141 Bracts used for “clothing” stems in Scrolls, &c. 137, 157 Capital, Greek Doric 175 Capital, Greek Ionic 176-179 Capital, Greek Corinthian 180, 181 Capital, Roman Tuscan 182 Capital, Roman Doric 183 Capital, Roman Ionic 184 Capital, Roman Corinthian 185, 187 Capital, Roman Composite 188, 189 Capitals (Byzantine), from Sta. Sophia at Constantinople, showing bossing out of ornament A and BB Catenary, explained at page 31 Cavetto and its ornament 56, 68 Ceiling from Serlio’s architecture 89 Ceiling, portion from the vestibule of St. Spirito (Florence), by Sansovino 88 Ceilings, fillings of 85-87 Ceilings, panelling of, showing at A an improper and at B a proper arrangement 92 Checkers, carved 98, 99 {xv} {xvi} Cinque-Cento floral ornament composed of the acanthus, oak-leaf, convolvulus and wild rose 130 Circle, ornament derived from 24-40 Contrasting decoration on rectangular and circular borders 95 Counter-change 171 Counter-change pattern, Saracenic 172 Cyma recta and its ornament 58, 64, 69 Cyma reversa and its ornaments. See Ogee. Diaper, Saracen 101 Diaper, Italian, sixteenth century 106, 107, 110 Diaper, Persian influence, sixteenth century 100 Diaper, Italian, German origin, sixteenth century 107 Door case at the Erechtheum, showing a portion of the Architrave, with the pateræ on the fascia 96 Door panels illustrating improper division at A, proper division at B 93 Entablature of the Erechtheum C Entablature of the Caryatid portico attached to the Erechtheum D Entablature of the Parthenon 175 Entablature of the Greek Ionic Temple on the Ilissus 176 Entablature of the monument of Lysikrates 180 Entablature of the Theatre of Marcellus 183 Entablature of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis 184 Entablature of the Pantheon, Rome 185 Entablature of Jupiter Tonans 186 Entablature of the Arch of Titus 189 Festoon, or swag 27 Finger-plates of different outlines 94 Fluted ornaments for flat bands 75, 76 Frets, Greek 12-15 Frets, Egyptian 16 Inscription from an Egyptian tablet 162 Inscription (Japanese), “Jiu” or long life 163 Interchange 173, 174 Japanese decoration 1 Japanese decoration, altered 2 Kiku-Mon, badge of the Empire of Japan 169 Lamp bottoms 134, 135 Laurel from nature 139 Lemon from nature 145 Lily border, Greco-Roman 120 Meander 44-47 Monograms in Christian art 170 Mouldings, profiles of Greek 61-66 Mouldings, profiles of Roman 55-60 Network, Japanese 102 Ogee, Roman 57, 71 Ogee, Greek 63, 70 Ogee with water-leaf ornament from the Erechtheum 70, 73 Ogee, Roman variety, with its ornaments 71 Opus Alexandrinum, from a pavement in the Church of San Marco, Rome 79 Ovolo, from the Erechtheum, enriched 67 Panel ornament, Renaissance 128 Panel (Venetian), illustrating balance without symmetry 126 Panel, Cinque-Cento 127 Panel with trophy of arms and armour 133 Panel, design for a carved wood panel from the lemon plant 146 Panel arrangement from the tiger-lily 148 Paperhanging, design from the wild rose 143 Patera Frontispiece Pear-tree, winter aspect, illustrating “balance” in nature 160 Pilaster, designed by Donatello 121 Pilaster panel, Cinque-Cento 122 Pilaster decoration, Italian 123 Placque, in silver repoussé work, German seventeenth century 125 Powdering, Japanese 103, 105 {xvii} {xviii} I Reduction of similar ornament in different spaces E, 105 Reeded ornaments for flat bands, &c. 76A, 76B Root forms, Mediæval and Oriental 138 Rosettes (Roman), composed of leaf and floral forms 136 Scarab, Egyptian symbolic form 161 Scroll ornament on the roof of the Monument of Lysikrates 53 Shield (Savage) made of cane and ornamented with cut shells and zig-zags 97 Spandrel (Gothic), from Stone Church, Kent 131 Spandrel, by Alfred Stevens 132 Spiral 24 Spiral curves, examples of ornament chiefly based on spiral curves 41, 43, 45, 47-51 Spotting 84, 103, 105 Straight-lined ornament 3-23 Superimposed Japanese powdering 104 Symbolic ornament, the Egyptian lotus and water 165 Tail-pieces, or “lamp bottoms” 134, 135 Tchakra, sacred wheel of Brahma and Vishnu, also the “wheel of fire” 168 Thyrsus, staff of the god Bacchus 167 Tiger-lily from nature 147 Tree of life from an Assyrian bas-relief with worshippers 166 Tripod stand on the top of the roof of the Monument of Lysikrates 54 Vase, from the Hildesheim treasures 129 Vases (Modern and Greek), showing unequal divisions of the height and strengthening horizontal bands 90, 91 Wild rose from nature 142 Wine-crater. See Vase. Winged globe and asps, Egyptian symbolic ornament 164 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER T may not be amiss to point out the advantages of studying ornamental art even to those who do not mean to be artists. The course to be adopted, after acquiring the necessary geometry, is to draw or model plants and to learn their anatomy. This will make the student accurately acquainted with the forms of plants and of their parts, and as he progresses he will find out beauties which have escaped him in a cursory view; the further he proceeds, the more his admiration will be excited by those subtle beauties he finds so hard to render and so easy to miss. The student will then notice, how many illustrations of plants are near enough to the originals to be unmistakable, but that the grace of the plants has evaporated. As soon as he is sufficiently advanced to study with advantage the best examples of ornamental art, he will find out the difficulties the great ornamentalists have overcome in applying the beauties of nature to works of art; and will then take a deeper interest in these masterpieces, and receive a corresponding delight. He will learn from these studies to reverence the artists and to admire the nation that produced them; for “art is the mirror of a nation’s civilization.” I have spoken only of floral ornament, though the highest ornament is the human figure, and after that animal forms. The severity, however, of the requisite studies to become a figure draughtsman, which demand a knowledge of the skeleton and of the muscles, unfortunately deters amateurs, and not unfrequently ornamentalists, from learning to draw the figure, so that their works fall short of the excellence of the Greeks and Italians, who were above all things figure draughtsmen. Amateurs too will greatly aid the art, for as a rule excellence is only attained when there are many educated lovers of it, who can appreciate a beautiful creation, and reward the artist by their judicious admiration. For twenty years I have pointed out that Nature offers her beauties gratuitously to mankind for its solace and delight; perhaps, however, the following words of Emile de Laveleye, in his book on Luxury, will have more weight:— “Might not the man of the people, on whom the curse of matter weighs with so heavy a load, find the best kind of alleviation for his hard condition, if his eyes were open to what Leonardo da Vinci calls la bellezza del mondo—‘the beautiful things of the earth’?... Pindar says, ‘In the day when the Rhodians shall erect an altar to Minerva, a rain of gold will fall upon the isle.’ The golden rain which falls on any people when literature and the fine arts are encouraged ... is a shower of pure and disinterested delights.” I am tempted to say something on the prospects of ornamental art. Nothing in this world can be had without paying for it, but though we must all live, those who have devoted their lives to the creation of the beautiful, look more to the delight they give and the admiration they excite, than to mere pecuniary rewards. No art will ever flourish unless there are educated and enthusiastic admirers of its masterpieces. The artist will never devote his talents to an art, and undergo the ceaseless toil requisite to create beauty, unless he be rewarded by the praise of real judges. I fear we cannot as yet make the Greek boast “that we love the beautiful”; but until we do love it, we can hardly expect to rival those who did. The whole ornamental art of the world is now before us, and it is not to be believed that artists would not elaborate something new and beautiful from all the knowledge they have gained, if there were a passionate desire for it among the people. This can never be so long as the public is content with paraphrases of deceased art, or merely asks for a jumble of discordant scraps. Novelty we must needs have, for this generation does not inherit the precise tastes of former days, not even those of its immediate predecessor, and it is {xix} {xx} {1} {2} {3} this generation that wants to be charmed: it is true that it gets novelty, but it should want beautiful novelty, and not that which is commonplace or ugly. Novelty in art is not an absolute difference from what has gone before, for that is sure to be bad, but only that difference and that improvement which one instructed generation can give to the past excellence it builds on. It is therefore necessary for the student who is born an artist, and hopes to create new loveliness, to be steeped in the beauties of nature and of art. To attain this a profound study of nature and the masterpieces of former art are wanted, for, as Sir Joshua Reynolds said, “Invention is one of the greatest marks of genius, ... and it is by being conversant with the inventions of others that we learn to invent”; while to express our knowledge and invention admirable draughtsmanship is requisite. We have a novel phase of ornament, which consists in twisting or arranging certain plants into the shape required, to make them fit their places. Much of this work is flabby or wire-drawn, and often omits the highest beauty of the plants it uses, but even when the beauty of the plant is not left out, the ornament is infinitely below the highest flights of former art, in which the artist had absorbed the graces of floral growth and had properly applied them. The highest ornament, by its abstraction, is closely allied to architectural art, while all its higher achievements are in conjunction with architecture; consequently there should be a harmony between the decoration and the framework. Natural foliage arranged on a geometrical basis makes a poor contrast to noble architecture. All ornamental arts, that are not realistic imitations, must be founded on precedent art. We have only one complete system of decorative art that took an entirely new direction besides Gothic, and that harmonizes with its architecture—the Saracenic—and that art is not congenial to our taste, feelings, or desires. Gothic ornamental art is mostly too barbaric or too realistic to suit us, except when it is borrowed from Roman, Byzantine, or Saracenic sources; in fact, we have nothing but Roman, Byzantine, and Renaissance art to fall back on for ornament; of Greek ornamental art we have some carved stone-work, moulded metal-work, painting on vases, incised work, and the traces of painting. Little of secular Byzantine art remains, though it is not probable that it materially differed from the ecclesiastical art of its period; it was Roman art modified by the new religion and by Greek and Oriental taste, in which saints and martyrs, with their attributes or symbols, took the place of the antique gods and goddesses; while the Renaissance was an attempted revival of Roman. We cannot expect to equal at once the masterpieces of Greek, Roman, or Renaissance art; we have neither the centuries of experience nor the cultivated public. Every artist, however, can, by the means before mentioned, be sure of having conquered the preliminaries of his art, and he can be sincere; he can give us those beauties from nature that have captivated him, and have been transfused into ornament by the alembic of his mind; such ornament will be sure to find some congenial spirits to admire it: and I think I may say that a public sufficiently cultivated to appreciate real art is gradually being formed. The highest art is undoubtedly that which is the simplest and most perfect, which gives the experience and skill of a lifetime by a few lines or touches; and this art is more calculated to captivate the best taste of the day than the complex or the intricate. However, there will even now be ample recognition of the creations of any skilled artist who is sincere, let his genius take him where it will. There is, too, this consolation for every true artist whose works remain: that if there are few judges of his work now, there may be more hereafter—judges who when they look at his work will say, this is the work of a true artist; and he may confer delight on unborn thousands, and direct attention, in after ages, to those beauties of nature that have been overlooked. I will now revert to the book, and confine myself to such remarks as I hope may be useful to those who study it. The student, when he has learnt and comprehended the laws, should observe growing plants, and notice that every plant illustrates some, and mostly many, of the laws; and when he has clearly distinguished them, he should examine the best ornament of antiquity and the Renaissance, and satisfy himself that the laws, involved in the particular example he is studying, have been followed. When he has done this, he should note any divergence from the laws and endeavour to understand the reason for it. To ensure the effect they intend, great artists sometimes ignore the ordinary laws. It is well that he should consider that the main object of every plant is to live and propagate itself: to live it wants air, moisture, and nourishment, and mostly sunshine, and it must strive to get these necessaries amidst a crowd of competitors. In this struggle the plant is often dwarfed or distorted, and still more frequently some of its parts are deformed; its flowers must attract insects by their colour or scent, and must allure the insects by the honey they distil to fertilize them; so that beauty, except in the colour of the flowers, is for the plant a secondary consideration. In ornament, on the contrary, beauty is the only consideration, except perhaps in mnemonic and symbolic ornament; and these must have beauty, or they cease to be ornament. Ornament has also to be portrayed on some material, or carved in it; it should conform to the shape of the object, be governed by the quality of the material, and by the use to which the object is to be put—e.g. a leaf may be carved in certain woods, almost of the thinness of the real leaf, but then it must be preserved in a glass case. This thinness is not to be got if the leaf be carved in stone; the artist must therefore see what beauties he can abstract from the plant he has chosen or from floral growth generally, so that it can be carved. He should in all cases know that his design can be expressed in the material to be used, that it will ornament the object, will not be easily destroyed, and will not interfere with the use of the object. If he succeeds in doing this, his skill, taste, and judgment will be admired. This necessary abstraction we unfortunately call convention, and when it makes good ornament, and shows the characteristic beauty and vigour of plant form, it is of the highest sort; this is found in the best Greek, Roman, and Renaissance ornament, while when a coarse and clumsy imitation of nature is made, with all the beauty left out, it is the lowest sort of convention. Any cheap speculative houses that have carving upon them, will afford ample illustrations of contemporary convention in its worst form. Gothic ornament was quite new; for no sooner did the architects, carvers, masons, carpenters, and others find that they had surpassed the old world in constructive skill, than they looked down on all the old world arts, and would not be beholden to them. They were determined to begin afresh; they had human beings, animals, trees, plants, and flowers, as well as the Romans and Byzantines; why should they not make as good statues and ornament? There is much to be said in favour of this contention, for every one must desire to see his house, his town-hall, and his church ornamented with the flowers and plants that he knows and loves, instead of with the conventionalized plants of other countries that he does not know, or that he has gazed on to satiety. But it is one thing to have a longing, and another to be able to bring plants, leaves, and flowers into the domain of high art. The early Gothic {4} {5} {6} {7} {8} sculptors did give a certain crispness, and in some cases even a monumental air to their carved flora, and sometimes they got that mysterious look of infinite complexity that is found in nature, and they had invention to a marvellous degree. From the sculptors working on the spot, and being able to see each figure and piece of ornament in its place, they never missed their effect. All their ornament answered its main end, of giving a broken mass of light and shade to contrast with plain surfaces, mouldings, or shafts, while much of it was vigorous; but some of the early Gothic foliage has no grace, is often destitute of floral character, and might be mistaken for hanks of string on pieces of firewood, or worm-eaten wigs. The first touch of the Renaissance brought a sweetness of proportion to architecture and a grace to floral ornament that is most striking. Good traditional ornament has these inestimable advantages, that it has been treated for ages by skilful men, so that its faults have been corrected, new graces have been added to it, and it has been fitted to properly fill the requisite shapes. From the first, the artist must have noticed some special beauties and fitness in the plant he chose, and the ornament must have had some striking qualities to make it popular; for why else should it have been preferred and persisted in, when so many other plants had great beauty? There is, however, some ornament that, after it has once been perfected, seems incapable of further improvement. The egg and tongue may be cited as an instance. It has never been improved since the perfecting of Greek architecture, nor has any good substitute for it been found. A coarse caricature of it is still the most popular ornament of the ovolo. The Romans converted it into a floral form at the Temple of Jupiter Tonans, with marked want of success. The Greek honeysuckle and the acanthus are the most striking examples of good traditional ornament. To take the acanthus first, it was started by the Greeks, continued by the Romans, and used by the Byzantines with a different character, then adopted by the Renaissance artists, and has been treated in an entirely novel way by Alfred Stevens in our own day. Stevens has given a peculiarly plastic character to its leafage in the Wellington monument. That form of it which is used in the Corinthian capital has had such an infinity of pains bestowed on it, that improvement on the old lines is scarcely to be expected, though new floral capitals may be invented. Every portion of the leaf, down to its rafflings, has been perfected to the end the Romans destined it to fulfil, though, as in all human inventions, something was sacrificed to attain it. The Greek capital was rather deficient in outline, but it was possessed of the most exquisite floral grace, and this was sacrificed by the Romans to attain distinctness, strength, and dignity; these qualities being particularly necessary when it was used in colossal monuments. Even when it was on a smaller scale, we can see the advantages of the change. In some Byzantine buildings, old Greek and Roman Corinthian columns have been used together. As an isolated ornament the Greek capital is greatly to be preferred, but when the two are seen in conjunction as parts of the building, the Roman capital is clear, distinct, and dignified, while the Greek one is a confused mass. In their colossal capitals, the Romans mostly substituted the olive-leaf for the natural raffle, and used but four or five in each leaflet; though the oak-leaf, the parsley, and the endive were occasionally used. Each raffle of the olive-leafed variety is hollowed by a curve without ribs, the only lines being those made by the edges of the hollows, and each leaflet is hollowed out like a cockle-shell as well. In the best examples, the upper edges of each leaflet are mostly clear of the one above or overlap it; in the first case they are thrown up by the shadow behind, in the latter the edges of the raffles are bright against the half light of the leaflets above, and are also thrown up by the shade in their points. The top of the complete leaf curls over, and thus throws its shadow on the part below, so there is the contrast between masses of light, graduated shade, and graduated shadow. The back of the leaf was used to get a wide stem, and this stem tapers upwards, while the pipes, that come from the eyes between the leaflets, taper downwards, are nearly parallel with the stem, and are deeply undercut, thus making the whole leaf distinct and vigorous (Fig. 110). If examples are compared, the superiority of the parallel pipes over those that run into the stem is at once seen. The lower leaves are cut through horizontally in the middle, and come straight down on to the necking, which gives much more vigour to the capital, than when the bell turns inwards above the necking. The student will do well to carefully draw a good example, then model it, and then carve it, for it has been the type from which most good floral capitals have been derived. The acanthus and other floral ornament used by the Italian Renaissance artists deserve quite as much attention as the Roman; for though their ornament was not on the same colossal scale, it was done by excellent figure sculptors who had studied ornament, and were of finer artistic fibre than the Romans, besides having the best Roman examples for their models. The Italian artists were, too, nearly as fond of the human figure as the Greeks, and introduced it wherever they could do so appropriately. There is perhaps but one other ornament that is worthy of the profoundest study, the radiating ornament of the Greeks, known as the Greek honeysuckle. This ornament is full of subtle devices, in the elegant graduation of its forms, in the proportioning of the masses, in its even distribution, and in the making of the different curves enhance the value of one another. There is often, too, a suggestion of horizontality or verticality introduced, that gives the highest value to the composition; all showing the intimate acquaintance with nature that the Greek artists possessed. Many of the Greek running patterns are both original and effective, and in some of them tangential junction is distinctly avoided, to attract attention to the ornament. The Greeks, too, were pre-eminent in knowing the use of restraint and the value of plainness. When the sculptor had carved his ornament on an architectural monument he seemed to say, “Better this if you can!” The Byzantines understood the value of gradation, and when they wholly ornamented a profile, they made some parts in bold, some in low relief, and engraved or sunk other parts. The Saracens learned this art from them, and so improved on it, that the general effect of their best work resembles Greek art; at the proper distance the subordinate ornament looks like a mere difference of texture. Saracenic ornament affords the only instances of complete floral decoration without the figures of man or animals; and although it is inclined to be monotonous, and geometrical forms are too predominant, it is, when coloured and gilt, saved from monotony by the magical change of the patterns on the beholder shifting his position. This effect is obtained by trifling differences of level in the planes of the ornament and by gilding. Its floral forms, however, are usually coarse and poor, and have no refined graces. There are a few points not touched on in the book which it may be well to mention. One is a device that was, I think, only used by the Byzantines, i. e. bossing out ornament to catch the light. Constantine the Great, when he had the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem built, had the capitals of the sanctuary columns made of silver, and doubtless the silversmiths in working them hammered out some bosses to catch the light. This device was seized on by the sculptors of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople, and used in the marble {9} {10} {11} {12} {13} capitals of its columns and pilasters (Figs. A and B). I may also draw attention to another Byzantine device, which charmed Mr. Ruskin at St. Mark’s—the leaves of capitals caught by the wind and blown aside. Capitals with a similar device existed in Sta. Sophia at Salonica, some of which were partly calcined by the late fire. The propriety of using such an incident in the conventional stone ornaments of a supporting member may be doubted, still we must admire the observation and genius of the sculptor; and there are many opportunities of using such an incident when the ornament is not on a supporting member. I point it out to show what fresh resources for the ornamentalist are to be found in nature, when he has the industry to observe and the talent to create. There are cases where architectural features have to be reduced, and at the same time to be emphasized too. No better example of this is to be found than in the Caryatid temple attached to the Erechtheum. Its entablature was below the main one, and so had to be smaller, and yet was wanted to be important [Image unavailable.] Figs. A and B.—Byzantine Capitals from Sta. Sophia at Constantinople, showing the bossing out of the ornament. [Image unavailable.] Fig. C.—Entablature of the Erechtheum. {14} {15} O [Image unavailable.] Fig. D.—Entablature of the Caryatid portico of the Erechtheum. and weighty enough for the figures. All the frieze but the capping was consequently left out, the top fascia of the architrave was enriched with circular discs, and between the cappings of the architrave and frieze a deep dentil band was introduced. Mainly by these means the due effect was gained (Figs. C and D). Ornament has sometimes to be repeated in a composition on a smaller scale, and this should not be done by merely reducing the scale so as to have a diminutive reproduction, but by keeping the general form of the ornament with fewer details. Several examples may be found in M. Mayeux’s book.[1] Instances of the same motive being repeated in the same height and in a narrower width are sometimes found. An example may be seen beneath the double and single windows of an hotel in the Rue Dalbard, Toulouse[2] (Fig. E). [Image unavailable.] Fig. E.—Reduction of similar ornament in different spaces. Much might be said on the subject of materials, but I will only make a few remarks. In making a design, due consideration should be given to the material employed, so that the natural ornamentation of one material may not be put on another; pottery is turned on the wheel, and is adapted for painting, while hollow metal vessels are embossed, but it is common enough to see pottery embossed, which can, it is true, be accomplished by casting or by inlaying, yet this sort of ornamentation always looks inappropriate. Stone is usually of large and wood of small scantling, yet in the front of a stone building with arched openings the wooden door-head is often made a continuation of the stone impost, though the mouldings of the wood-work should be finer and the ornament different. Although the young student should confine his attention to the best styles, the advanced one should have some acquaintance with all traditional ornament, even the styles of Louis XIV. and XV., a grafting of Chinese and Japanese ornament on the current classic, for they are the only modern styles, except the early Renaissance, that have complete unity. The same style runs through the whole building, down to the door furniture and the damask of the chairs; the handling, too, is often admirable, and the examples are full of hints to the advanced student, who is unlikely to be infected with the rococo style. I have dwelt much on carving for several reasons; it is the most lasting of ornamental work, and as a rule the most important; it is susceptible of the greatest perfection when executed in marble, and all architectural ornament must eventually fall into the hands of the sculptor, since he has devoted his life to its study. I may add that the French architects look upon it as the weak point in English architecture. To the young student I may say that he can never become an artist until he has mastered the fundamental principles of his art; and that nothing can deserve the name of ornament that is not both appropriate and beautiful, and has been evolved from nature by the mind of man. I would suggest to the young artist that the flora of the world is not confined to the lotus, the honeysuckle, and the acanthus; that if accident caused the original choice of these plants, it was the infinite pains bestowed on their treatment that caused their persistence. There are, too, thousands of beauties still to be culled from plants and flowers that now remain outside the domain of art. Let the student remember that knowledge, skill, truth, and sincerity are the main roads to real success, and that real success is, to have produced some beauty that has captivated or will captivate mankind. G. Aitchison. THE PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT CHAPTER I RNAMENT is the proper enrichment of an object or surface with such forms, or forms and colours, as will give the thing decorated a new beauty, while strictly preserving its shape and character. It is the function of ornament to emphasize the forms of the object it decorates, not to hide them. Decoration is not necessarily ornament; for instance, the lovely sprays of plants with birds and cognate subjects, painted on Japanese pottery, may be called beautiful decoration, but cannot in our sense of the word be called {16} {17} {18} {19} ornament; for however realistic ornament may be, it must show that it has passed through the mind of man, and been acted on by it. This kind of decoration might be a literal transcript from nature, and neither emphasizes the boundaries of the decorated surface nor harmonizes with them. It possesses an exquisite beauty of its own, for the drawing and colour and the style of execution are good. With the exception of frets and diapers, true ornament is rare in Japanese art. Fig. 1 is a Japanese decoration on an oblong surface. Such a design is pretty, but we can hardly call it ornament. Something must be done with it before we can give it that name. [Image unavailable.] Fig. 1.—Japanese decoration. [Image unavailable.] Fig. 2.—Japanese decoration altered. To make an ornamental design, the units of the decoration must be arranged and brought into order; repetition and symmetry may not be required, but even distribution, order, and balance are indispensable. The whole too must not appear to be accidental but designed for the object, while No. 1 might have been made from a shadow cast on a window. The sketch at Fig. 2 is an attempt to illustrate our notion of ornament by using the elements in Fig. 1 evenly distributed, having at the same time a due regard to the boundary-lines of the panel. Applied ornament is that which is specially designed and fitted for the position it occupies. Independent ornaments are such things as shields, labels, medallions, &c., with or without enclosing frames; pateræ, festoons, and other loose ornamental objects, which may be attached to a surface, and may be used alone, or in combination with applied ornament (Fig. 133). Numerous examples may be given of inappropriate ornament. As a rule, any kind of ornament that is not suited to the surface ornamented, or is falsely constructed, may be called inappropriate. For instance, if upright panels and pilasters were decorated with ornament running in oblique lines, or with a strongly-marked series of horizontal bands; or if a carpet pattern were designed to run in one particular direction; or, from an architectural point of view, if columns supporting nothing were used in decoration; if consoles or brackets were turned upside down; or if curved mouldings were decorated with frets; or panels were overloaded with mouldings; if forms, organic or otherwise, were used together, but out of scale with one another; or things were made to simulate what they are not; or there were a great excess of enrichment; each of these examples might be considered as inappropriate ornament. Methods of Expression.—Ornament is expressed in three different ways: Firstly, by pure outline, as traced with a point; secondly, where breadth is added, by flat tints as in painting with the brush, or by shading, hatching, spotting, or stippling; thirdly, by relief, or sinking, as in modelling and sculpture. These three divisions may be subdivided, but all the subdivisions are but varieties or combinations of the first three genera. Relief modelled or pierced ornament has no other outline than that given by light and shade; but it may also be coloured, i. e. in two shades—one for the ornament and one for the background, or with the forms and background “picked out” in a variety of colours. Shaded or painted ornament in the flat is an imitation of relief work, and will be noticed again. Ornament Expressed in Outline.—All the early decorative work of mankind, both the prehistoric etchings on bone and on pottery, the line decoration on Assyrian cylinders, bronze dishes and tablets, and the incised work on the Greek, Etruscan, and Roman cistas, hand-mirrors, and vases come under this head; as well as sgraffito-work when expressed by outline, cut in plaster showing a different-coloured plaster beneath. Ornament Expressed by Flat Tints, in monochrome or colour, with no shading and without shadow, is a common method of ornamentation. This class includes painted ornament on the flat, whether polychromatic or in “grisaille”; inlaid wood-work, called parquetry when used for floors, and marquetry when used for other purposes; inlaid marble, stone, tile and plaster work, mosaic, tesselated, sectile and Alexandrine pavements; damascened metal-work; some enamels, lac-work, and painted pottery; woven, embroidered, printed, and stencilled stuffs, including oil-cloth; enamelled glass; and some sgraffito-work. It is convenient to class under this head certain work of slight thickness or relief, such as lace, applied work of paper, stuffs, velvet, &c., fine filigree and wire-work. Inlay under the name of “Tarsia” was greatly used by the Italians in the decoration of cathedrals and churches and in fittings and furniture; in cathedral stalls and sacristy fittings, boxwood was commonly inlaid in walnut, but ebony and ivory were largely employed for house furniture and fittings, and many different substances were sometimes employed. Tortoiseshell, gold, silver, ivory, mother-of- pearl, and different coloured woods are largely employed for the same purpose by Orientals and others. A species of inlay composed of white and stained ivory, ebony, and silver, in geometrical patterns, is much used by the cabinet-makers of India—our Tunbridge ware is supposed to be an imitation of it. Flat Tints enriched by Outline were sometimes used in Greek vases, and are often used in inlays and damascened work; very pretty examples may be found in old Chinese lac-work, inlaid with figures and landscapes in black mother-of-pearl, the features, &c. {20} {21} {22} {23} T being outlined. Relief-work.—Ordinary modelled and carved work, either in relief or sunk, is too well known to need description; but under this heading are included pierced, open, and turned work, and such compound work as may be pierced, or turned and carved or incised as well. Coloured Relief-work.—All Egyptian, Greek, and Mediæval bas-reliefs, and some if not all of their figure sculpture in the round, were coloured, but when the figures were of white marble, the colour was generally confined to the flesh, eyes, and hair, and to the stripes or patterns on the dresses. In one of the white marble sarcophagi from Sidon, now in the Museum at Constantinople, while figures of half life-size are left wholly white, smaller figures are wholly coloured and gilt, like the terra-cotta ones of Tanagra, and some of the ornament is white on a purple ground. All the Italian Renaissance bas-reliefs in “gesso duro” were wholly coloured. In Greek temples the carved ornament was coloured, including the triglyphs, and parts of the ornament were often gilt, the uncut mouldings too were mostly ornamented in colour. In some enamelled pottery in relief, the figures or ornament were left white on a coloured ground, or the drapery of the figures and the ornament were coloured, as in some of the Della Robbia ware. All Roman embossed plaster was coloured and gilt. Much relief-work in bronze and the precious metals has been coloured by means of enamel, or alloys in the metal; coloured mosaic has been used to clothe columns, and some mosaic and pietra dura is in relief, as well as lac and ivory work inlaid with fine stones, mother-of-pearl, and ivory; all Moresque and some Saracen embossed plaster-work, and probably carved stone-work, was coloured and gilt; some Burmese plaster-work in relief is gilt and inlaid with coloured glass, and certain stuffs have had raised ornament upon them, formed by stuffing with wadding the applied pieces, which sometimes were embroidered. Shaded or Painted Ornament on the Flat in Imitation of Relief-work.—This is probably the largest class, and includes engraving, shaded ornament in chiaroscuro, and shaded and coloured ornament with or without cast shadows; in it are included the Chinese, Persian, Mediæval, and Renaissance translucent enamels, which are laid over sunk (intaglio) work, and painters’ enamels; Boule work, which consists of brass, tin, or pewter, inlaid in ebony or tortoiseshell with the metal-work engraved; wood inlay in the shape of shaded natural flowers, landscapes, architectural views, and figure subjects; shaded ornament on woven or printed stuffs, and embroidery; and shaded painting on china and glass, and in Arabesques. What we now call Arabesques were paraphrases of Roman painted decoration, of which Pompeii offers us so wide a knowledge. These decorations consisted of fantastic buildings, interspersed with figures, animals, landscapes, and foliage. The discovery of this kind of painting in the baths of Titus[3] at Rome led Raphael to adopt it and to improve on it. The culminating point in Arabesque painting was the decoration of the loggias of the Vatican by Raphael and his pupil, Giovanni Recamatore, commonly known as Giovanni da Udine. The Mohammedans, from whom the name was derived, mostly avoided the figures of men and animals,[4] even in their secular buildings or furniture, it being feared that the portrayal of living creatures might lead them to idolatry; so spaces were filled with intricate geometrical patterns and coarse foliage. CHAPTER II HE elementary forms used in ornament form the next division. It is assumed that the space is given that we are required to ornament; for example, a ceiling, a wall, a frieze, a panel, or a carpet. The boundary-lines are the enclosing lines of our space or field, which may be subdivided. This subdividing is called the setting-out. We have now to think of the forms and character of the ornament we propose to adopt. It is now advisable to give illustrations of the various elementary forms used in ornament. As lines, either straight or curved, are the basis of all ornament, we begin with the straight line. It would be difficult to overrate the value of the straight line in ornament. The qualities of stability, firmness, and repose given by upright and horizontal lines are well illustrated by the mouldings round rectilinear panels, by cornices and pilasters, and by reeded and fluted ornaments. All frets are composed of straight lines. The illustrations from Fig. 3 to Fig. 23 are specimens of straight-lined ornaments. Taking the band or two horizontal parallel lines in Fig. 3, and marking off equidistant points on the upper and on the lower one, only alternating, and drawing vertical lines from these points, we obtain the basis of a large class of frets. Figs. 4, 6, 7, and 8 show further developments of the fret. Figs. 5 and 18 show the elements of some Saracenic or Moresque frets, of which Figs. 11, 21, and 22 are developments. Figs. 6, 8, 12, 13 and 14 [Image unavailable.] {24} {25} {26} {27} Figs. 3 to 7.—Straight-lined ornaments. are Greek f...