The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Principal Species of Wood: Their Characteristic Properties, by Charles H. (Charles Henry) Snow This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re- use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: The Principal Species of Wood: Their Characteristic Properties First Edition Author: Charles H. (Charles Henry) Snow Release Date: March 12, 2014 [eBook #45032] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 ***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD: THEIR CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES*** E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, Adrian Mastronardi, RichardW, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries (https://archive.org/details/americana) Note: Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive/American Libraries. See https://archive.org/details/principalspecies00snowrich Live Oak (Quercus virginiana), Louisiana. THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD: THEIR CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES. BY CHARLES HENRY SNOW, C.E., Sc.D., Dean of the School of Applied Science, New York University; Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, etc. FIRST EDITION. FIRST THOUSAND. NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED. 1903. Copyright, 1903, BY CHARLES HENRY SNOW. ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK. PREFACE. The following is a brief untechnical presentation of general features characterizing economically important species of wood. It is the result of notes originally brought together from many already existing sources and later augmented, and verified so far as possible for the present use, by personal observation. The work of preparation has not been as simple as the result would indicate, and although great care has been taken to check each fact, errors do no doubt exist, although it is not believed that there are important ones. Engineers while writing upon woods have, save exceptionally, emphasized strength beyond most other properties. Other works for expert foresters or botanists are of necessity too special, voluminous, fragmental, or technical for the casual student. Some popular books on trees, as distinct from woods, are available. The present form is distinct from these and is intended for those who are not foresters or botanists, but who use woods or desire knowledge of their distinguishing properties. Allusions to trees, historical and other references, aside from those directly regarding woods, are made for completeness and in order to mark, distinguish, or separate the species. Acknowledgments are particularly due to the publications of the U. S. Division of Forestry, to Prof. Sargent's studies as set forth in Vol. IX of the Tenth U. S. Census, to Dr. B. E. Fernow, to Mr. Raphael G. Zon for suggestions and for technical revision, to the Northwestern Lumberman and other trade journals, to many dealers, who have been uniform in their courtesy, and incidentally to Mr. Morris K. Jesup, whose magnificent collection of woods at the New York Museum of Natural History has been available to the writer as to others. These, with other sources of information acknowledged by the writer, and suggested to others, are suitably arranged in the following list. Of the 155 illustrations, 138 are original, the drawings having been prepared under the supervision of the writer from actual specimens by Mr. Irving T. Worthly of Cornell University and several students of New York University, and the photographs by Mr. John Hopfengartner, Jr., of Westchester, New York City. Other illustrations are, so far as possible, acknowledged in place. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Section 1. Wood. Definitions. "Structure." Weights. Coefficients. Uses. Botanical and Common Nomenclatures. General Information, etc. 1 PART II. EXOGENOUS SERIES. Section 2. Definitions. Cellular Structure. Annual Rings. Medullary or Pith Rays. Pith Cavities. Sapwood and Heartwood. Cross, Radial and Tangential Distinctions. "Quarter Sawn" Surfaces, Common and Botanical Subdivisions, etc. 7 BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS. Section 3. Distribution. Distinguishing Characteristics. General Information, etc. 10 Oak (Quercus). Section 4. Distribution. Historical. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Commercial Divisions. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 11 a. White Oak (Quercus alba) 13 b. Cow Oak (Quercus michauxii) 14 c. Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus) 15 d. Post Oak (Quercus minor) 16 e. Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) 17 f. White Oak (Quercus garryana) 18 g. Red Oak (Quercus rubra) 19 h. Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) 20 i. Spanish Oak (Quercus digitata) 21 j. Black Oak (Quercus velutina) 22 k. Live Oak (Quercus virens) 23 l. California Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia) 24 m. Live Oak (Quercus chrysolepis) 25 n. English Oak (Quercus robur var. pedunculata) 26 Ash (Fraxinus). Section 5. Distribution. Historical. General Properties. Commercial Divisions. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 27 a. White Ash (Fraxinus americana) 29 b. Red Ash (Fraxinus pubescens) 30 c. Blue Ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata) 31 d. Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra) 32 e. Green Ash (Fraxinus viridis) 33 f. Oregon Ash (Fraxinus oregona) 34 Elm (Ulmus). Section 6. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Uses. Landscape Value of Trees, etc. 35 a. White Elm (Ulmus americana) 36 b. Cork Elm (Ulmus racemosa) 37 c. Slippery Elm, Red Elm (Ulmus pubescens) 38 d. Wing Elm (Ulmus alata) 39 Maple (Acer). Section 7. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Uses. Maple Sugar. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 40 a. Sugar Maple, Hard Maple (Acer saccharum) 42 b. Silver Maple, Soft Maple (Acer saccharinum) 43 c. Red Maple, Swamp Maple (Acer rubrum) 44 d. Oregon Maple (Acer macrophyllum) 45 e. Boxelder, Ash-leaved Maple (Acer negundo) 46 Walnut (Juglans). Section 8. Historical. Black Walnut in Gun Stocks. Structural and Physical Properties of Woods. Burl. White Walnut. English Walnut. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 47 a. Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) 49 b. White Walnut, Butternut (Juglans cinerea) 50 Hickory (Hicoria). Section 9. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Uses. "Second-growth" Hickory. Pecan. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 51 a. Shagbark (Hicoria ovata) 52 b. Pignut (Hicoria glabra) 53 c. Mocker Nut (Hicoria alba) 54 d. Pecan (Hicoria pecan) 55 Chestnut; Chinquapin (Castanea). Section 10. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Uses. Famous Trees. Nuts. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 56 a. Chestnut (Castanea dentata) 58 b. Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) 59 Beech, Ironwood (Fagus) (Carpinus, Ostrya, etc.). Section 11. Distribution. Early Uses of Beech. Structural and Physical Properties of Woods. Uses. Enumeration of Species Affording "Ironwood." 60 a. Beech (Fagus atropunicea) 62 b. Ironwood, Blue Beech (Carpinus caroliniana) 63 c. Ironwood, Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) 64 Sycamore (Platanus). Section 12. Confusion of Names. Historical, Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Uses. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 65 a. Sycamore, Buttonball (Platanus occidentalis) 66 b. California Sycamore (Platanus racemosa) 67 Birch (Betula). Section 13. Distribution. History and Uses of Bark. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Uses of Wood. Commercial Divisions of Wood. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 68 a. White Birch (Betula populifolia) 70 b. Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera) 71 c. Red Birch (Betula nigra) 72 d. Yellow Birch (Betula lutea) 73 e. Sweet, Cherry Birch. (Betula lenta) 74 Locust; Mesquite (Robinia, Gleditsia, Prosopis). Section 14. Confusion of Names. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Uses. Structural Value of Black Locust. Durability and Peculiarities of Mesquite. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 75 a. Black Locust, Yellow Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) 77 b. Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) 78 c. Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) 79 Whitewood or Tulip-tree Wood; Poplar or Cottonwood; Cucumber-tree Wood; Basswood (Liriodendron), (Populus), (Magnolia), (Tilia). Section 15. Structural Relations. Peculiarities and Uses of Wood. Confusion of Names. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 80 a. Whitewood, Tulip-tree or Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) 82 b. Poplar, Large Tooth Aspen (Populus grandidentata) 83 c. Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) 84 d. Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) 85 e. Cucumber-tree (Magnolia acuminata) 86 f. Basswood, Linden (Tilia americana) 87 Willow (Salix). Section 16. Distribution. Historical. Properties and Uses of Wood. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 88 a. Black Willow (Salix nigra) 89 Catalpa (Catalpa). Section 17. Structural Values. Properties of Woods. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 90 a. Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa) 91 b. Catalpa (Catalpa catalpa) 92 Sassafras; Mulberry (Sassafras), (Morus). Section 18. Historical. Properties of Sassafras Wood. Properties of Mulberry Wood. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 93 a. Sassafras (Sassafras officinale) 94 b. Mulberry, Red Mulberry (Morus rubra) 95 Buckeye; Horse Chestnut (Aesculus). Section 19. Structural and Botanical Relationship. Localities. Properties and Uses of Wood. 96 a. Horse Chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) 97 b. Ohio Buckeye (Aesculus glabra) 97 c. Sweet Buckeye (Aesculus octandra) 98 Gum (Liquidambar, Nyssa). Section 20. Botanical and Structural Relationships. General Properties and Uses of Woods. Botanical Characteristics of Trees. 99 a. Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) 100 b. Sour Gum (Nyssa sylvatica) 101 c. Cotton Gum, Tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) 102 Holly; Boxwood; Lignumvitæ (Ilex), (Buxus Cornus), (Guajacum, etc.). Section 21. Structural and Physical Properties; also Uses of Holly, of Boxwood, and of Lignumvitæ Woods. Sources. Substitutes for Boxwood, i.e., Flowering Dogwood, Mexican Persimmon and Rose Bay. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 103 a. Holly (Ilex opaca) 105 b. Dogwood (Cornus florida) 106 c. Lignumvitæ (Guajacum sanctum) 107 Laurel (Magnolia, Rhododendron, Arbutus, etc.). Section 22. Application of Name Laurel. Structural Peculiarities and Uses of Several Products. 108 a. Mountain Laurel (Umbellularia californica) 109 b. Madroña (Arbutus menziesii) 110 Persimmon; Osage Orange; Cherry (Diospyros), (Maclura), (Prunus). Section 23. Range. Structural Peculiarities and Uses of Persimmon Wood, of Osage Orange Wood, of Cherry Wood. 111 a. Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) 112 b. Osage Orange (Maclura aurantiaca) 113 c. Cherry (Prunus serotina) 114 Teak; Greenheart (Tectona), (Nectandra). Section 24. Asiatic Teak. African Teak. Structural Peculiarities and Uses of Teak Wood. Structural Peculiarities and Uses of Greenheart 115 a. Teak (Tectona grandis) 116 b. Greenheart (Nectandra rodiali) 117 Mahogany (Swietenia, Khaya, Soymida, Cedrela, etc.). Section 25. Applications of Name Mahogany. Sources of Supply. Structural and Physical Peculiarities. Also Uses of Wood, Veneers, Spanish Cedar, White Mahogany 118 a. Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) 120 b. White Mahogany (Tabeuia Donnell-Smithii) 121 c. Spanish Cedar, Mexican Cedar (Cedrela odorata) 122 Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus). Section 26. Localities. Common Names. Great Size. Rapid Growth and Sanitary Properties of Trees. Structural Properties of Jarrah, Karri and Tuart Woods. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. 123 a. Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) 125 b. Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) 126 c. Tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala) 127 d. Blue Gum, Fever Tree (Eucalyptus globulus) 128 NEEDLELEAF OR SOFT WOODS. Section 27. Localities. Historical. Structural and Physical Properties. Uses. Botanical Characteristics. General Information 129 Pine (Pinus). Section 28. Structural and Physical Properties. Uses. Botanical Characteristics 130 Soft Pine.—Structural and Physical Properties. Importance. Sources of Supply, etc. 131 Hard Pine.—Structural and Physical Properties. Importance. Source of Supply, etc. 132 a. White Pine (Pinus strobus) 134 b. White Pine (Pinus flexilis) 135 c. Sugar Pine (Pinus lambertiana) 136 d. White Pine (Pinus monticola) 137 e. Georgia, Hard, Yellow or Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) 138 f. Cuban Pine (Pinus heterophylla) 139 g. Shortleaf Pine, Yellow Pine (Pinus echinata) 140 h. Loblolly Pine (Pinus tæda) 141 i. Bull Pine, Yellow Pine, Western Pine (Pinus ponderosa) 142 j. Norway Pine, Red Pine (Pinus resinosa) 143 k. Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) 144 l. Northern Pine, Scotch Pine, Dantzic Pine (Pinus sylvestris) 145 Kauri Pine (Dammara). Section 29. Descriptive. Structural and Physical Characteristics. "Kauri Gum," etc. 146 a. Kauri Pine (Dammara australis) 147 Spruce (Picea). Section 30. Localities. Structural and Physical Peculiarities. Commercial Divisions. Botanical Characteristics 148 a. Black Spruce (Picea nigra) 150 b. Red Spruce (Picea rubens) 150 c. White Spruce (Picea alba) 151 d. White Spruce (Picea engelmanni) 152 e. Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) 153 Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga). Section 31. Great Size of Trees. Localities. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. Botanical Characteristics 154 a. Douglas or Red Spruce or Fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) 155 Fir (Abies). Section 32. Sources of Supply. Structural and Physical Characteristics. Confusion of Names. Botanical Characteristics 156 a. Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) 157 b. Great Silver Fir (Abies grandis) 158 c. White Fir (Abies concolor) 159 d. Red Fir (Abies magnifica) 160 e. Red Fir. Noble Fir (Abies nobilis) 161 Hemlock (Tsuga). Section 33. Distribution. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. Botanical Characteristics 162 a. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) 163 b. Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) 163 Larch; Tamarack (Larix). Section 34. Historical. Sources. Structural and Physical Peculiarities. Botanical Characteristics 164 a. Larch, Tamarack (Larix americana) 165 b. Larch, Tamarack (Larix occidentalis) 166 Cedar (Cedrus, Thuya, Chamæcyparis, Libocedrus, Juniperus). Section 35. Confusion of Names. Historical. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. Uses. Commercial Divisions, etc. 167 a. Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) 169 b. Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) 170 c. White Cedar, Arborvitæ (Thuya occidentalis) 171 d. Canoe Cedar, Arborvitæ, Giant Arborvitæ (Thuya plicata) 172 e. White Cedar (Chamæcyparis thyoides) 173 f. Port Orford Cedar, Lawson Cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) 174 g. Yellow Cedar, Yellow Cypress, Sitka Cypress (Chamæcyparis nootkatensis) 175 h. Incense Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) 176 Cypress (Cupressus, Taxodium). Section 36. Confusion of Names. Sources. Historical. Structural and Physical Peculiarities. Commercial Divisions. Fungus Disease 177 a. Cypress, Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum) 179 Redwood (Sequoia). Section 37. Locality. Peculiarities of Trees. Structural and Physical Qualities of Wood. Uses. Mammoth Trees 180 a. Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) 182 b. Giant Redwood (Sequoia washingtoniana) 182 PART III. ENDOGENOUS SERIES. Section 38. Definitions. Cellular Structure. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Endogenous Wood. Uses. General Information 183 Palm (Palmaceæ). Section 39. Localities. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. Uses. Botanical. Characteristics 185 a. Cabbage Palmetto (Sabal palmetto) 186 b. Washington Palm (Washingtonia filifera) 187 Yucca (Yucca). Section 40. Localities. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. Uses, etc. 188 a. Joshua Tree, Yucca (Yucca arborescens) 189 Bamboo (Bambusæ). Section 41. Botanical Characteristics. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. Growth. Uses in the Orient. Possibilities in America, etc. 190 a. Bamboo (Bambusæ vulgaris) 192 LIST OF PLATES. Frontispiece. Live Oak (Quercus virginiana). Plate 2. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD—Yearly Rings or Layers. Plate 3. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD—Medullary or Pith Ray. Plate 4. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD—Cross-sections Enlarged. Plate 5. Oak (Quercus alba). Plate 6. Ash (Fraxinus americana). Plate 7. Elm (Ulmus americana). Plate 8. Maple (Acer saccharum). Plate 9. Walnut (Juglans). Plate 10. Hickory (Hicoria ovata). Plate 11. Chestnut (Castanea dentata). Plate 12. Beech (Fagus). Plate 13. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). Plate 14. Birch (Betula). Plate 15. Locust (Robinia, Gleditsia). Plate 16. Whitewood (Liriodendron tulipifera). Plate 17. Black Willow (Salix nigra). Plate 18. Catalpa (Catalpa). Plate 19. Sassafras (Sassafras officinale). Plate 20. Horse Chestnut (Æsculus hippocastanum). Plate 21. Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua). Plate 22. Holly, Boxwood, Lignumvitæ (Ilex), (Buxus, Cornus), (Guajacum). Plate 23. Persimmon, Osage Orange, Cherry (Diospyros), (Maclura), (Prunus). Plate 24. Teak, Greenheart (Tectona), (Nectandra). Plate 25. Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni). Plate 26. Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus). Plate 27. Pine (Pinus). Plate 28. Kauri Pine (Dammara australis). Plate 29. Black Spruce (Picea nigra). Plate 30. Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). Plate 31. Hemlock (Tsuga). Plate 32. Larch, Tamarack (Larix). Plate 33. Cedar (Cedrus, Thuya, etc.). Plate 34. Cypress (Cupressus, Taxodium). Plate 35. Redwood (Sequoia). Plate 36. ENDOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD. Plate 37. Palm (Palmaceæ). Plate 38. Yucca (Yucca). Plate 39. Bamboo (Bambusæ). BIBLIOGRAPHY. NAMES AND LOCALITIES. "Check List of Forest Trees of the United States, their Names and Ranges," Sudworth. (U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 17.) FEATURES OF TREES, BOTANIES. Prof. Sargent's "Silva of North America"; Michaux and Nuttall's "North American Silva"; Apgar's "Trees of Northern United States"; Publications U. S. Forestry Division; "Our Native Trees," Keeler; "Familiar Trees," Mathews; "Timber Trees and Forests of North Carolina," Pinchot & Ashe (N. C. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 6); "Report on Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," Emerson; "Manual of Botany," Gray; "Plants," Coulter; "Illustrated Flora of U. S.," Britton and Brown; etc., etc. Botanical Gazette; Guide to Trees and Shrubs of New England by their Leaves, Bradley Whidder, Boston. COLOR, APPEARANCE OR GRAIN OF WOOD. Jesup Collection at Museum of Natural History, New York City; Hough's American Woods (sections). STRUCTURAL QUALITIES AND USES OF WOODS. "Timber," Roth (Bulletin No. 10, U. S. Forestry Div.); Vol. IX, Tenth U. S. Census; Prof. Sargent's "Catalogue Jesup Collections"; Prof J. B. Johnson's "Materials of Construction"; Prof. Thurston's "Materials of Engineering," Part I; Dr. F. E. Kidder's "Inspection of Materials and Workmanship." Allusions in numerous publications U. S. Forestry Division. WEIGHTS AND MODULI. Circular No. 15, U. S. Forestry Division; Prof. J. B. Johnson's "Materials of Construction"; Mr. S. P. Sharpless' Tables for the U. S. Census (Vol. IX, Tenth Census; also Executive Document No. 5, 48th Congress, 1st Session, and also Sargent's "Catalogue Jesup Collection"); Prof. Lanza's "Applied Mechanics." AMERICAN SPECIES. See foot-notes to species in question. FOREIGN SPECIES. Thos. Lazlett's "Timber and Timber Trees"; Report on Forests of Western Australia by J. Ednie Brown; Catalogue Kew Botanical Gardens, London; Works Baron Ferd. von Mueller; "American Lumber in Foreign Markets" (Special Consular Reports, Vol. XI, U. S. State Dept.); Stevenson's "Trees of Commerce"; also see foot-notes, species in question. GENERAL. "Forestry for Farmers," Fernow, and other U. S. Forestry Division Publications, Vol. IX, Tenth U. S. Census; Hough's American Woods (text); The Forester; The Northwestern Lumberman; The (New Orleans) Lumber Trade Journal; The New York Lumber Trade Journal; The Timber Trades Journal (London); "Lumber Trade of U. S." (Bureau Statistics U. S. Treas. Dept.); Trees in Winter, Huntington. HISTORICAL. Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon; Pliny, etc. MEDICINAL PROPERTIES. U. S. Dispensatory. Books particularly useful to beginners are in italics. Names are repeated when books could not be particularly classed under one heading. Also see foot-notes under subjects in questions. THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD. FIG. 1.—SOME WOOD ELEMENTS. INTRODUCTION. A tree has been defined as a woody plant that produces naturally and in its native place one principal erect stem with a definite crown of foliage. A plant thus attaining to the dignity of a tree is said to be arborescent.[1] There are nearly five hundred distinct species of trees growing in the United States,[2] as well as many others peculiar to other countries, yet the great mass of wood everywhere utilized is derived from comparatively few of them.[3] Many woods will be more generally employed as their valuable properties become more familiar or as the supplies of wood now utilized continue to diminish. The same tree is often called by different common names in different places. Nearly thirty names are thus applied to the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris). Such confusion can be avoided only by regarding the recognized botanical nomenclature. The botanical name of a plant consists of two principal terms denoting genus and species. Quercus, for example, is the generic name including all species of oak. Alba, rubra, and others are specific names denoting the said species. Quercus alba and Quercus rubra are completed terms. Genera are not fixed but differ with authorities, so that the abbreviated name of the botanist responsible for the classification adopted is often added, as Quercus alba Linn. and Ulmus fulva Michx. A species is a collection of individuals that might well have sprung from some single root. A genus is a collection of related species. Genera are gathered into families. Families and genera differ with authorities. A variety includes individuals differing slightly from accepted species. Its name when existing is part of the specific name. "Quercus robur var. pedunculata" specifies a variety (pedunculata) of "red" or strong (robur) oak (Quercus). A variety of one botanist is sometimes a distinct species of another. The size and character of the trunk, and the range, locality, or distribution of the tree, have much to do with the utility of the wood, since large or perfect timbers cannot be derived from species characterized by small or crooked trees, and since wood is always more used if it is widely distributed so as to be easily available.[4] Wood is made up of cell-structures; as, the true fibre, which originates from several cells; the tracheid (tra-ke-id), which originates from one; the vessel, which is a short, wide tube joined vertically end to end with others of its kind; the pith-ray; the resin-duct, and others,—all of which are often popularly referred to as fibres. The character and the arrangement of cell-structures differ with species. Wood is hard, soft, light, heavy, tough, porous, elastic, or otherwise, because of these differences. Appearance is affected, and woods may be distinguished from one another, because of this fact.[5] Most wood is used in "construction," that is, in mines, railways, houses, and ships, where demand is for size or quantity, and where finish and appearance amount to but little. Much wood is used in decoration and furniture, where appearance, appropriateness, and finish are called for; but these woods, although much in evidence, are infinitely less in quantity than those employed in construction. Some wood is required for implements, turnery, carvings, and small-piece work, where size is secondary and where qualities such as hardness, fine grain, and uniformity, controllable in small pieces, are primary. Some wood is used indirectly, as in the manufacture of paper-pulp, gunpowder, and chemicals. There are also by-products of trees, such as tanbark, turpentine, resin, nuts, and sugar. The weight, strength, and other measurable properties of wood are variable. Weight varies from day to day as water is absorbed and evaporated. Strength differs with grain, age, moisture, specific gravity, and many other things. Two pieces from different portions of the same tree differ from each other. The proportions of sap and heart wood are seldom constant. Results from small specimens may differ from those obtained from larger ones. [6] The botanical accuracy of a specimen is not always certain, therefore figures relating to the physical properties of wood should be employed with greater caution than those relating to the more homogeneous metals. Many of the experiments conducted to establish statements regarding the physical properties of wood have been defective in that while the conclusions were correct as applied to the specimens immediately studied, such specimens did not stand for the species at large. The recognition of difficulties, the selection of specimens, the scientific standardizing of methods so that results could be generally utilized, as distinct from the simple manipulation of specimens in testing-machines, have not been exhaustively attempted until recently. [7] The experiments that have been made to determine the strength of woods may be grouped into the four following divisions: (1) Experiments conducted by the U. S. Division of Forestry (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief), under the direction of Professor J. B. Johnson. About forty thousand tests were made, distributed over thirty-one American species, the results, so far as obtained, being undoubtedly the most valuable in existence. The detail considered and methods evolved have in a way reclassed the testing of woods and must influence all future efforts, but results are disappointing in that they have been obtained for so few species, and some of these of commercially secondary importance. These experiments are characterized as follows: Completeness and Reliability of Records. Large and Small Test Pieces. Moisture Conditions Standardized at 12% Dry Weight. Samples from Representative Portions of Tree. Selection of Representative Trees. Uniformity of Methods. Large Number of Individual and Total Tests. Small Number of Species Covered. Specific Gravity Determinations. Soil and Forest Conditions Indicated. Botanical Accuracy Assured. These experiments are originally described in Circular No. 15 and other publications of the U. S. Forestry Division, also in "Materials of Construction," by Professor J. B. Johnson. [p001] [p002] [p003] [p004] (2) Experiments conducted for the Tenth U. S. Census by Mr. J. P. Sharpless at the Watertown (Mass.) Arsenal upon specimens botanically selected by Professor Sargent. These experiments are less complete in detail, and averages are based upon infinitely fewer tests for each species. So far as known most specimens were from butts. Nothing is known of moisture conditions save that specimens were "carefully seasoned." Tests were upon about twelve hundred specimens divided over four hundred and twelve species, allowing but a small number for each. The series is most valuable in that the species attempted were so numerous as to present an almost complete American series; in that the botanical identity of the specimens was beyond question, and because it gives a general idea of relative values. The results are frequently quoted and appear on the accompanying pages in spaces immediately following those occupied by, or set apart for, "Forestry" figures or their alternates. The tests are characterized as follows: Botanical Accuracy Assured. Specific Gravity Determinations. Uniformity of Methods. Limited Number of Individuals and Total Tests. Large Number of Species Covered. Small Test Pieces Only. Selection and Moisture Conditions Indefinite. They are originally described in Vol. IX, Tenth U. S. Census; Executive Document No. 5, Forty-eighth Congress, First Session; in Catalogue of the "Jesup Collection," by Professor C. S. Sargent, and elsewhere. (3) Experiments conducted upon full-sized pieces. The most reliable investigations under this head were either conducted by Professor Lanza, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, or else are noted by him in his work, "Applied Mechanics" (ed. 1895, pp. 673-711). They are valuable in that specimens were selected on a commercial rather than on a scientific basis. Professor Lanza claims that such actual pieces are less perfect and show approximately one half the unit strength developed by the more carefully selected smaller specimens. These experiments are characterized as follows: Life-sized Specimens. Miscellaneous Selections as if for Practical Construction. Moisture and Other Data Indefinite. (4) All other experiments. Many experiments have been made from time to time which, while valuable, are not distinguished by any particular method or principle, such as separate the investigations noted in the preceding articles. Data as to selection of specimens, moisture, and other conditions are either incomplete or else absolutely lacking. Such tests are referred to as are noted in works of Hatfield, Trautwein, Lazlett, Rankine, Thurston, and others. Some of these series are exceedingly valuable comparatively. Professor Rankine and Mr. Lazlett experimented principally upon foreign woods. The figures established by the United States Division of Forestry and alluded to in item 1, page 4, appear, so far as they exist, upon the following pages. Where they do not exist, the leading spaces set apart for them are left vacant for other insertions as preferred. All coefficients are in pounds per square inch. Fractions of pounds in weight and lower figures in coefficients have been omitted as superfluous. It is not always easy to determine the species of living trees, because forms in the forest differ from those in the open, because bark varies with age, and because fruit and leaves of many trees are lacking in the winter. It is easier to tell genus than species—that a tree is an oak, than whether it is a red or a pin oak. Experience is required in this connection. Trees are divided into two general divisions known as Exogens and Endogens.[8] FOOTNOTES [1] Fernow, Introduction to U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 17. [2] Dr. Fernow credits 495 trees to United States (Introduction to U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 17); Prof. Sargent, counting species only and excluding varieties, gives 422 (Silva of North America). [3] "The principal timbers of commerce in the United States are the species known popularly as pine, fir, oak, hickory, hemlock, ash, poplar, maple, cypress, spruce, cedar, and walnut." ("The Lumber Trade of the United States," Treas. Dept., Bureau of Statistics.) [4] Fossils show that many species covered wider ranges than at present. [5] Roth, U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 10, pp. 64-71. Also von Schrenk, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Bureau Plant Industry Bul. No. 14, pp. 12-16. [6] Only because imperfections are more likely in larger pieces. Large and small pieces of equally perfect wood are equally strong. (See Publications U. S. Forestry Div. and J. B. Johnson's "Materials of Construction," p. 462.) [7] It should be noted that the selection and preparation of specimens require the exercise of more judgment than the simple testing of specimens, if the conclusions are to be such that they can be generalized from. [8] This division coincides with that by which they are separated into Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. PLATE 2. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD. YEARLY RINGS OR LAYERS. A section of a Longleaf Pine Tree. A section of Oak showing "porous" structure in yearly layers. (Natural size.) A section of Hard Pine showing "solid" structure in layers. (Natural size.) [p005] [p006] [p007] FIG. 2.—SECTION BOXELDER, SHOWING PITH-CAVITY AT CENTRE. FIG. 4. EXOGENOUS TREES. (Dicotyledons.) Exogenous trees are those the trunks of which are built up by rings or layers, each deposited consecutively upon the outside of the others. A section exhibits first a central point or canal known as a pith-cavity, next and consecutively the annual layers, and finally the bark. The woods of this series are familiar to all. The oaks, pines, and practically all of the merchantable lumbers are among them. The forests are widely distributed, and the species are so numerous as to present an almost infinite range of possibilities. The young wood of exogenous trees is porous. It permits the passage of sap and is known as sapwood (Alburnum). As a layer is enclosed by others and retreats from the surface of the tree, it becomes denser, its canals are filled with gums or tannin, color changes, and the result is heartwood (Duramen). This change goes forward rapidly in some trees, such as locusts, so that their sections appear to be almost wholly heartwood; other species require longer time, and sapwood then predominates. Heartwood gives stability to the tree, but is not needed in its physiological processes. It is tougher, heavier, stronger, and more valued in construction. Sapwood is vitally essential to the life of the tree, but is lighter, weaker, less durable, and less valued in construction. Sapwood is pliable, and the sapwoods of several trees are valued for this reason. Wood-making varies as it takes place in the springtime and in the summer. Consequent differences in the densities of the deposits serve to mark the limits of the yearly rings. Some species, as the oaks and hickories, show pores throughout their spring woods which thus contrast with denser summer growths. Others, as Southern pines, change sharply, and their spring and summer growths appear as solid bands. In even climates, where seasons are not pronounced, growth is more regular and layers correspondingly less definite.[9] The cellular structure of wood is principally vertical, a fact that explains the ease with which wood is split up and down. Beside the vertical, there are horizontal cells, that cross the tree, strengthen and bind the vertical cells, and assist in the life-processes of the tree. These horizontal cells form what are known as medullary or pith-rays and appear as simple lines or glistening plates according to the way in which the wood is cut. Woods differ in the size and number of these rays, which are by no means always visible to the eye (see plate 3). FIG. 3. Woods are easy or difficult to work in proportion as their fibres are arranged in a simple or a complicated manner. This is shown in the figures on plate 4. A knife pressed upon the oak must crush or cut into the fibres themselves, whereas with the pine it finds some natural passage between the cells. Wood may be cut so as to develop cross-sections (C, Fig. 3), radial sections (R), or tangential sections (T). The respective markings are in a general way indicated on the boards in the figure. PLATE 3. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD. MEDULLARY OR PITH RAY. Middle--Actual appearances of pith ray, PP. Bottom--Microscopic enlargement of a tangential section of White Oak showing large pith ray, pp. PLATE 4. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD. (CROSS-SECTIONS, ENLARGED.) Top--Two yearly layers of White Oak. The larger pores were formed in spring, the smaller ones in summer. The small circles are ends of fibres. A knife pressed upon this surface would crush or cut into the cells. The mass would not split or separate evenly. Bottom--Two yearly layers of White Pine. The space in the outer or darker one is a resin-duct; the circles are ends of fibres (tracheids); pith rays are noticeable. A knife pressed upon this surface would find easy passage. The mass would separate easily. Logs are sometimes sawn into quarters and then into pieces crossing and exposing the yearly rings. (See Fig. 4.) These "quarter-sawn" surfaces are structurally stronger and better, but are, by reason of waste or small pieces, more costly than others. The pith-rays of some woods, such as oaks, are very prominent when split as they are in "quarter-sawing," and the appearance of such woods is consequently improved.[10] Exogenous trees are divided into broad-leaved trees and needle-leaved conifers. The broad, flat leaves of trees such as oaks and chestnuts gave rise to the former term, while the narrow resinous leaves of the pine and hemlock gave rise to the latter. The woods of the former group are usually referred to as hard woods, although some of them are very soft; those of the latter group are referred to as soft woods, although some of them are very hard. Most, but not all, of the broadleaf trees are deciduous, that is, they change their foliage every year; and most, but not all, of the needleleaf trees are evergreen, that is, the foliage is persistent. Needleleaf trees are also known as conifers, that is, cone-bearers. It is usual to associate the terms broadleaf, deciduous, and hard wood; and likewise the terms needleleaf, conifer, evergreen, and soft wood. While generally correct, this is, as seen, not always so. A better division is into broadleaf trees or woods, and needleleaf conifers. BROADLEAF WOODS. The trees affording these woods are found in natural forests and under cultivation in nearly every portion of the globe. The histories of some of them extend back to very remote periods. Their woods were the principal ones in construction until the advent of American soft [p008] [p009] [p010]