Berit Åström The Politics of Tradition Examining the History of the Old English Poems The Wife’s Lament and Wulf and Eadwacer Umeå 2002 Skrifter från moderna språk 5 Institutionen för moderna språk Umeå universitet 2002 The Politics of Tradition Examining the History of the Old English Poems The Wife’s Lament and Wulf and Eadwacer Berit Åström Skrifter från moderna språk 5 Institutionen för moderna språk Umeå universitet 2002 Umeå universitet SE-901 87 Umeå universitet Tfn. +46 90 786 51 38 Fax. +46 90 786 60 23 http:// www.mos.umu.se/forskning/publikationer Skrifter från moderna språk 5 Umeå universitet ISSN 1650-304X Skriftseriens redaktör: Raoul J. Granqvist © 2002 Berit Åström Omslagsfoto © Regia Anglorum Tryckt av Print & Media, Umeå universitet 2002 ISBN 91-7305-318-X ISSN 1650-304X CCCCoooonnnntttteeeennnnttttssss Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………….… 9 Introduction…………………………………………………………………... 10 The framework of tradition in Old English studies ..………………………. 11 Previous research…………………………………………………………… 14 A brief history of Old English studies……………………………………… 18 Theoretical background……………………………………………………... 24 Chapter one: tools and terms………………………………………………... 29 Metaphor, metonymy and anamorphosis………………………………….... 29 Identity……………………………………………………………………… 31 Alterity……………………………………………………………………… 33 Chapter two: Old English poetry and Anglo-Saxonist scholarship….…. 39 Old English poetry, problems and opportunities…………………………… 39 Determining the text……………………………………………………... 41 The canonical nature of Anglo-Saxon scholarship…………………….... 45 The poems…………………………………………………………………... 47 Wulf and Eadwacer……………………………………………………… 48 The Wife's Lament………………………………………………………. 52 Chapter three: identity construction…………………………………….... 58 Professional identities within Old English studies…………………………. 58 Identity construction in the past…………………………………………. 60 Identity construction in the present…………………………………….... 62 Previous research into identity construction…………………………….. 65 Constructions of a professional identity through Wife and Wulf…………… 68 Identity through religion and ancestry…………………………………... 68 Identity through continuity…………………………………………….... 74 Identity construction through alterity………………………………….... 77 Chapter four: metaphoric and metonymic readings………………………... 81 Closing or opening the system……………………………………………... 81 Metaphoric readings of Wife and Wulf……………………………………... 83 Search for related texts…………………………………………………... 83 Substitution of cultures………………………………………………….. 87 Metonymic readings of Wife and Wulf……………………………………... 89 Cross-cultural interpretations………………………………………….… 89 Chapter five: feminist studies………………………………………………... 94 Feminism in medieval studies……………………………………………… 94 Authorship and representation…………………………………………... 97 Essentialist feminist approaches to Old English literature…………………. 98 Theoretically-informed feminist research………………………………….. 104 Gendered voices and textual femininity………………………………... 105 Frauenlieder…………………………………………………………….. 107 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………... 114 Coda…………………………………………………………………………….. 117 Whither research in Old English poetry?…………………………………... 117 Further research…………………………………………………………….. 118 Appendix …………………………………………………………………….…. 120 Wulf and Eadwacer………………………………………………………… 120 The Wife's Lament…………………………………………………………. 121 Appendix II……………………………………………………………………... 123 Bibliography of texts on The Wife's Lament and Wulf and Eadwacer…….. 123 General bibliography………………………………………………………….. 129 Works cited………………………………………………………………… 129 Works consulted……………………………………………………………. 142 Index of names………………………………………………………………….. 147 Acknowledgements It is sometimes said that writing a doctoral thesis is lonely work, but I have found through the years that it is in many ways a communal effort, and I am very grateful to a large number of people who have helped me in very many ways. First I would like to thank my supervisor Raoul Granqvist who undauntedly took over as my supervisor halfway through the project. Without complaint he has read many different drafts and suggested ways of improving my text. Not an Anglo- Saxonist, he has provided a fresh perspective on my work and challenged my thinking in many ways. With his help this thesis, and the work behind it, has become a lot more interesting. I would also like to thank my co-supervisor Margrét Gunnarsdottír who has provided me with much-needed expertise within the field, and patiently watched me try out many different thesis topics without ever losing hope. Fortunately she has reigned me in when my imagination has run away with me. Professor Sven-Johan Spånberg was my first supervisor and, until his retire- ment, helped my through the initial stage of my research. He kindly let me try out dif- ferent routes without pressuring me. Professor Marijane Osborn of University of California at Davis has also been an invaluable help in her reading and commenting on my text. Her insightful remarks on both context and style have helped to improve my thesis in many ways. My gratitude also goes to the administrative staff at my department, Gunn- Marie Forsberg, Christina Karlberg and Gerd Lilljegren for administrative and per- sonal help. My colleagues within the department have made going to work something to look forward to, and I have especially appreciated their interesting conversations during coffee breaks. I would particularly like to thank Pat Shrimpton and Karyn Söderström for moral support when things have got on top of me. It would have been impossible for me to find my place as a postgraduate with- out the aid of my fellow postgraduates. To them I have been able to bring my ques- tions about my rights as well as my obligations. I particularly wish to thank my friends in The Bambas Society for Academic Excellence, Katarina Gregersdotter, Malin Isaksson, Maria Lindgren (who, of course, is not a postgraduate anymore) and Mia Svensson, for help and encouragement in my work, as well as much needed re- laxation. Finally I would like to thank my husband, Patrick, for untiring support and en- couragement, and for cheerfully putting up with the thankless task of living with the grumpy creature that a postgraduate can be. IIIInnnnttttrrrroooodddduuuuccccttttiiiioooonnnn As an undergraduate, I encountered a Swedish translation of The Wife's Lament by Gunnar Hansson.1 Fascinated by the power of the emotions voiced in the poem, I wanted to know how these emotions were expressed in the original Old English. When I made a prose translation I was surprised to find how much my translation dif- fered from Hansson’s translation. As an inexperienced undergraduate, I thought that there must be a “solution” to the poem, so in order to understand it better I read a number of articles on it. Instead of reaching a “solution” to the poem, however, I found that I understood less and less of it. It seemed that it was not certain who the speaker is, whether it is a man or a woman, whom he or she is talking about, or where he or she is living, or if the narrator is even alive, or possibly is a ghost. In short, everything became a source of ambiguity, even though most scholars presented their interpretation as a more or less definitive solution. As I plodded on with my reading, now a post-graduate, I found that the choices of interpretation seemed to fall into a few groups, and that although the choices were often presented as objective, based only on solid facts rather than interpretation, they appeared to be based on the critic’s personal view of Anglo-Saxon society as much as on the poem itself. I widened my scope of reading to include analyses of the poem Wulf and Eadwacer as well, and found the same plethora of ideas and interpretations. By this stage I was intrigued; not only by the poems, which have the power to engender so many differing readings and opinions, but also by the readings and opinions themselves, and what they tell us about the critics. There seemed to exist very many possibilities and opportunities in the literary criticism of the poems. It is a distinguishing mark, however, of Old Eng- lish studies, that many critics see these variant possibilities not as opportunities, but as irritating problems to be overcome. To an undergraduate student, Old English studies2 are presented as a unified and unbiased field of information, mainly concerned with philological matters and manu- script studies.3 Beneath this smooth surface, the field is beset by what, to a student, seems like a multitude of problems: damaged manuscripts, difficult vocabulary, unre- liable sources, etc. Although these perceived problems affect the whole field of Old English studies, the study of poetry is particularly vulnerable, since the poems often exist in only one copy, and their language is full of rare words. Because of these 1 Gunnar D. Hansson, Slaget vid Maldon och sju elegier: fornengelska dikter (Gråbo: Anthropos, 1991). 2 The concepts of Old English and Anglo-Saxon are often blurred in their use by scholars. Some use them interchangeably, others argue for differences. I will use Old English to refer to the language and literature of a society I call Anglo-Saxon, populated by Anglo-Saxons. Scholars working with Old English texts I will refer to as Anglo-Saxonists. 3 Allen Frantzen has argued that scholars insisting on the exclusivity of the, albeit indispensable, use of traditional, philological methods of study “unfortunately perpetuate the illusion that traditional methods are neutral.” Desire for Origins: New Language, Old English and Teaching the Tradition (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990) 93.