Springer Series in Transitional Justice Volume 7 Series Editor Olivera Simic For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/11233 Stephanie Wolfe The Politics of Reparations and Apologies 1 3 Stephanie Wolfe Weber State University Ogden, Utah USA ISBN 978-1-4614-9184-2 ISBN 978-1-4614-9185-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-9185-9 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2013950765 © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, re- citation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Du- plication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Acknowledgments My everlasting gratitude to those who supported me throughout the research and writing process; this work could not have been completed without your support, both emotional and technical. First and foremost, my PhD adviser Dr. Amanda Kle- kowski von Koppenfels who read and critiqued numerous drafts, and provided in- valuable feedback at every point along the way. My mother-in-law Marlene Harrell, who knows every grammar rule in existence and edited each chapter repeatedly to the point of memorization. To my friends and co-workers who read various versions of each chapter, providing me critiques and points to ponder: Maureen Anglim, Dr. Stephanie Drumheller-Horton, Dr. Gary Johnson, and Dave Verge. To Lynn Hill whose transcription skills were invaluable. To my mother, who went to numerous concentration camps, museums, and memorials with me on varying research trips and above all, to my husband who has not only had to live with me during the re- search and writing process, but also edited, and kept me sane, fed, and caffeinated. Thank you. v Abbreviations ACLU American Civil Liberties Union AJDC American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee AWF Asian Women’s Fund CLA Civil Liberties Act of 1988 CLPEF Civil Liberties Public Education Fund CWRIC Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians DOJ Department of Justice DM German Deutschmark ECCC Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation FRG Federal Republic of Germany ICC International Criminal Court ICTR International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia IHL International Humanitarian Law IMT International Military Tribunal JACL Japanese American Citizens League JRSO Jewish Restitution Successor Organization LDP Liberal Democratic Party NCR National Committee for Redress NCRR Nikkei for Civil Rights & Redress NCJAR National Council for Japanese American Redress NGO Nongovernmental organization NSDAP National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party) OIA Office of Intergovernmental Affairs POS Political Opportunity Structure RRM Redress and Reparation Movement SMO Social Movement Organizations TRC South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UN United Nations UNHCR United Nations Commission on Human Rights vii viii AAbbbbrreevviiaattiioonnss URO United Restitution Organization US United States USD United States Dollars USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Party WRA War Relocation Authority YMCA Young Men’s Christian Association Contents 1 Atrocity, the State, and Reparation Politics ............................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 2 1.1.1 A trocity and Injustice ............................................................. 2 1.1.2 Definitions .............................................................................. 4 1.1.3 Evolution and Success of Redress and Reparation Movements .................................................... 6 1.1.4 Methodology .......................................................................... 7 1.2 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................... 8 1.2.1 Norm Dynamics and Political Change ................................... 8 1.2.2 Political Opportunity .............................................................. 11 1.3 Redress and Reparation Movements .................................................. 13 1.3.1 Social Movements and Social Movement Organizations ......................................................................... 13 1.3.2 Redress and Reparation Movements ...................................... 15 1.4 Overview of Book .............................................................................. 16 Bibliography ................................................................................................ 18 2 Reparation Politics: An Emerging Field .................................................. 19 2.1 Emergence of Atrocity and Accountability Norms ............................ 19 2.2 Legal Concepts of Reparation ............................................................ 23 2.3 Normative Shifts in International Law ............................................... 25 2.3.1 Legal Status of Individuals Prior to 1945 .............................. 26 2.3.2 T he International Military Tribunal ....................................... 30 2.3.3 Atrocity Norms ....................................................................... 33 2.4 Normative Concepts of Reparation .................................................... 35 2.5 Philosophical Concepts of Vergangenheitsbewältigung ..................... 37 2.6 Transitional Justice ............................................................................. 39 2.6.1 Submergence of International Justice .................................... 41 2.6.2 A nalytical Frameworks within Transitional Justice ..................................................................................... 42 2.6.3 Levels of Analysis .................................................................. 44 ix x Contents 2.7 Emergence of Modern Reparation Politics ...................................... 45 2.7.1 Theory of Redress ................................................................ 46 2.7.2 Theory of Restitution ........................................................... 47 2.7.3 Politics of Regret .................................................................. 49 2.7.4 The Field of Reparation Politics .......................................... 50 2.7.5 Comparative Reparation Politics .......................................... 52 Bibliography .............................................................................................. 52 3 Conceptual Understandings of Redress and Reparation ..................... 57 3.1 The State as Offender ....................................................................... 58 3.2 Political Reconciliation .................................................................... 60 3.3 State Responses ................................................................................ 61 3.3.1 Criminal Justice .................................................................... 63 3.3.2 Historical Justice .................................................................. 66 3.3.3 Reparatory Justice ................................................................ 68 3.3.4 Legislative Justice ................................................................ 72 3.3.5 Symbolic Justice ................................................................... 72 3.3.6 Revisiting Reparation Politics .............................................. 73 3.4 Recognition and Apologies .............................................................. 74 3.4.1 Denial of the Event ............................................................... 75 3.4.2 Acknowledgement of the Event ........................................... 76 3.4.3 Statement of Regret .............................................................. 76 3.4.4 Apologies .............................................................................. 77 3.4.5 Types of Apologies ............................................................... 78 3.5 Conceptual Understanding of Relative Success and Failure ........................................................................................ 79 3.5.1 Gamson’s Outcome of Resolved Challenges ....................... 80 3.5.2 Adaptation of Model ............................................................ 81 3.5.3 Assessment ........................................................................... 81 Bibliography .............................................................................................. 84 4 T he German Genocides and Subsequent Redress and Reparation Movements .................................................................... 87 4.1 The German Genocides .................................................................... 88 4.1.1 Weimar Republic (1919–1933) ............................................ 91 4.1.2 The Nazi Regime .................................................................. 93 4.2 Transition to Occupation .................................................................. 96 4.3 Mobilization During World War II ................................................... 98 4.3.1 Perception of Allied Governments ....................................... 98 4.3.2 Mobilization of Civil Society ............................................... 100 4.4 Initial Reparation Demands .............................................................. 104 4.5 Redress and Reparation Under Allied Occupation ........................... 105 4.5.1 Restitution of Heirless Property ........................................... 108 4.5.2 Mobilization of Civil Society Under Occupation ................ 109 Contents xi 4.6 Negotiating for Reparation and Restitution with the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) ............................... 110 4.6.1 Emergence of Israel ............................................................ 111 4.6.2 Key Negotiations ................................................................ 113 4.6.3 Transition to Sovereignty ................................................... 115 4.6.4 The Luxembourg Agreement ............................................. 116 4.7 Implementation of Redress and Reparation Within the FRG .............................................................................. 119 4.8 Quest for Romani Redress .............................................................. 122 4.9 Criminal Justice .............................................................................. 129 4.9.1 Nuremberg Trials ............................................................... 130 4.9.2 Romani Experiences within the Courts .............................. 131 4.9.3 Jewish Experiences Within the Courts ............................... 132 4.9.4 Comparative Conclusions .................................................. 134 4.10 Legislative Justice .......................................................................... 134 4.11 Symbolic and Historical Justice ..................................................... 135 4.12 Success and Failure of Redress and Reparation Movements ......... 138 4.12.1 State Recognition ............................................................. 139 4.12.2 Perception of Redress and Reparation ............................. 140 4.13 Political Opportunity and Differential Success .............................. 143 4.13.1 Normative Expectations ................................................... 143 4.13.2 Elite Allies, Inclusion, and Political Opportunities .......... 145 4.13.3 Conclusions ...................................................................... 147 Bibliography .............................................................................................. 148 5 Normative Shifts Within International Relations ................................. 153 5.1 The Rise of Cold War Tensions ........................................................ 155 5.2 Emergence of Human Rights ........................................................... 158 5.3 Norm Life Cycle ............................................................................... 162 5.3.1 Norm Emergence ................................................................. 162 5.3.2 Norm Re-Emergence ............................................................ 165 5.3.3 Tipping Point ........................................................................ 166 5.3.4 Normative Cascade .............................................................. 167 5.4 Racial Norms .................................................................................... 170 5.5 Gender Norms .................................................................................. 174 5.6 Diffusion and Political Opportunities ............................................... 177 Bibliography .............................................................................................. 179 6 Redress and Reparation Movements (RRMs) Following the United States Internments ....................................................................... 181 6.1 Japanese American Internments ....................................................... 182 6.1.1 Citizenship and Naturalization Laws ................................... 182 6.1.2 The Internment Process ........................................................ 184 6.2 Civil Society Reacts to Interment Laws ........................................... 188