The Politics of GENOCIDE The Holocaust in Hungary CondensedEdition Randolph L. Braham WayneStateUniversityPress Detroit Publishedinassociationwiththe UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum Copyright©2000byWayneStateUniversityPress,Detroit,Michigan48201. Allrightsarereserved. Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedwithoutformalpermission. ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Braham,RandolphL. Thepoliticsofgenocide:theHolocaustinHungary/RandolphL. Braham.—Condenseded. p. cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN0-8143-2690-0(alk.paper).—ISBN0-8143-2691-9(pbk.: alk.paper) 1.Jews—Persecutions—Hungary. 2.Holocaust,Jewish(1939–1945)- –Hungary. 3.Hungary—Ethnicrelations. I.Title. DS135.H9B74 2000 940.53'18'09439—dc21 99-20739 The material in this book is based upon The Politics of Genocide: The HolocaustinHungarybyRandolphL.Braham,originallypublishedby Columbia University Press © 19810 Columbia University Press; and publishedinanexpandededitionbySocialScienceMonographs©1994 RandolphL.Braham.Reprintedbypermission. Theassertions,arguments,andconclusionsarethoseoftheauthor.They do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the United States Holocaust MemorialCouncilortheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum. Published in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum,100RaoulWallenbergPlace,SW;Washington,DC20024-2126 ISBN978-0-8143-3889-6(e-book) Contents TablesandMaps 11 Preface 13 SourceAbbreviations 15 Glossary 17 1. HungarianJewry:AHistoricalOverview HistoricalBackground 19 The“GoldenEra” 19 TheInterwarPeriod 20 2. TheBeginningoftheEnd TheJewishCommunitybeforetheHolocaust 29 TheErabeforetheGermanOccupation 30 RoundupandMassacreofthe“Alien”Jews 32 TheDélvidékMassacres 34 TheLaborServiceSystem 37 Background 37 OrganizationoftheLaborServiceSystem 39 RadicalizationoftheSystem 41 TheLaborServicemenintheUkraine 43 TheEraofVilmosNagy 45 TheOrdealofLaborServicemeninOccupiedSerbia 47 TheGermanOccupationEra 49 TheNyilasEra 50 HungarianJewsinSovietPOWCamps 51 3. TheRoadtoDestruction AntecedentsoftheGermanOccupation 53 TheSchlossKlessheimConference 55 5 6 Contents Horthy’sConsenttotheDeliveryof“JewishWorkers” 57 Backgroundofthe“JewishWorkers”Pool 57 TheEvidenceonHorthy’sConsent 59 TheGermanOccupationForcesandAuthorities 62 TheWehrmacht 62 TheGermanLegation 62 AgenciesoftheRSHA 63 TheEichmann-Sonderkommando 64 TheSztójayGovernmentandItsAgencies 65 TheQuislingGovernment 65 ThePolice 67 DepartmentsXXandXXI 69 TheGendarmerie 69 TheCivilService 71 4. TheJewishCouncilandtheAwarenessoftheFinal Solution TheJewishCouncils:TheNaziDesign 73 TheCentralJewishCouncilofBudapest 74 OrganizationoftheCouncil 74 PerceptionsandPoliciesoftheCouncil 76 FunctionsoftheCouncil 78 StructureoftheCentralJewishCouncil 78 The“Legalization”andReorganizationoftheCouncil 80 TheOrganizationoftheConverts 82 ReorganizationoftheProvisionalExecutiveCommittee 83 TheJewishLeadership:AnEvaluation 84 AwarenessoftheFinalSolution 87 TheSourcesofInformation 87 TheFirstReports 88 AccountsbyJewishRefugees 89 RevelationsbytheSlovakJewishLeaders 89 RevelationsbyEscapeesfromAuschwitz 91 AwarenessbyHungarianJewishLeaders 92 Contents 7 TheHungarianGovernmentalLeaders’AwarenessoftheFinal Solution 95 5. TheFinalSolution:PhaseI ArrestsandIntimidations 99 DemandsandRequisitions 100 IsolationandMarkingoftheJews 101 SocialandSpiritual“Purification” 103 ThePauperizationandExpropriationoftheJews 104 MeasuresoftheSztójayGovernment 105 TheSSAcquisitionoftheWeiss-ManfrédWorks 107 PreparationsfortheRoundupandGhettoizationoftheJews 110 TheFatefulDecisions 110 TheMilitaryOperationalZones 112 TheGhettoization,Concentration,andDeportationMaster Plan 113 TheGhettoizationDecree 114 6. PhaseII:Ghettoization,Concentration, Deportation ZoneI:Carpatho-RutheniaandNortheasternHungary 117 OperationalDecisionsandProcesses 117 ConditionsintheGhettos 118 TheMajorGhettoCenters 119 The“Emergency”MeasuresinSouthernHungary 121 TheDejewifiers’“TriumphalTour” 122 ReactionoftheCentralJewishCouncil 123 InternmentsthroughtheCouncil 124 ZoneII:NorthernTransylvania 125 TheGhettoizationConferences 126 TheGhettoizationDrive 127 TheMajorGhettoCenters 129 TheDejewifiers’Assessment 132 8 Contents 7. Deportation TheMasterPlan 133 OperationalDirectives 135 TransportationArrangements 136 ZonesIandII:Carpatho-Ruthenia,NortheasternHungary,and NorthernTransylvania 137 GermanReactionsandCamouflageAttempts 138 HungarianOfficialCamouflage 139 ZoneIII:NorthernHungary 140 GendarmerieDistrictII 141 GendarmerieDistrictVII 143 ZoneIV:SouthernHungaryEastoftheDanube 144 GendarmerieDistrictV 144 GendarmerieDistrictVI 146 TheSpecialCaseoftheDélvidékandSouthwesternHungary 146 TheStrasshofTransports 147 ZoneV:WesternHungary 149 GendarmerieDistrictIII 149 GendarmerieDistrictIV 151 ZoneVI:BudapestandItsEnvirons 151 8. TheFateoftheJewsofBudapest ConcentrationoftheJewsofBudapest 155 EstablishmentofYellow-StarHouses 155 “Legal”ProvisionsRelatingtotheRelocationoftheJews 156 TheSeparationoftheConverts 157 TheHaltingoftheDeportations 158 TheKistarcsaandSárvárTragedies 164 TheAgonyandHopesoftheBudapestJews:July7–October15, 1944 166 PersistentDeportationRumors 166 Ferenczyasan“Ally” 168 BetweenDespairandEuphoria 171 Educational-CulturalActivities 171 Contents 9 ReligiousLife 172 ConversionsandtheConverts 173 TheExemptionSystem 174 PlansfortheEmploymentandConcentrationoftheJews 177 9. TheArrowCrossEra TheSzálasiCoup 181 TheNyilasTerror 184 TheSystematicDriveagainsttheJews 185 TheDeathMarchestoHegyeshalom 187 The“InternationalGhetto” 189 TheGhettoofBudapest 191 AdministrationoftheGhetto 193 TheLastPhase 195 10. AttitudesandReactions:Domestic TheJews:AttitudesandReactions 199 TheJewishMasses 199 TheJewishLeaders:TheCentralJewishCouncil 200 RevoltagainsttheCouncil 201 TheReliefandRescueCommittee 203 TheBrandMission 206 TheKasztnerLine 209 TheKrauszLine 213 Komoly’sLine 215 ResistanceEfforts 215 TheChristians:AttitudesandReactions 219 TheChristianMasses 219 TheChristianChurchesandTheirLeaders 221 TheConverts’Organizations 223 HungarianResistance 224 10 Contents 11. AttitudesandReactions:International TheAllies 227 TheWesternAllies 227 TheUSSR 232 TheNeutralCountries 233 Switzerland 233 Sweden 235 Spain 238 Portugal 239 Turkey 239 TheVaticanandtheBudapestNunciature 240 TheInternationalRedCross 243 Slovakia 245 Romania 247 12. CrimeandPunishment LossesofHungarianJewry 251 Punishment 254 Hungary 256 Romania 259 Yugoslavia 259 WestGermany 260 TrialsbyNon-GermanCourts 260 GermanTrials 261 Austria 262 OtherCountries 262 TheUnitedStatesandCanada 263 Notes 267 Bibliography 303 Index 305 Tables and Maps Tables 1. NumberofJewsintheGhettosandEntrainmentCentersin GendarmerieDistrictsIIandVII 142 2. NumberofJewsintheGhettosandEntrainmentCentersin GendarmerieDistrictsVandVI 145 3. NumberofJewsintheGhettosandEntrainmentCentersin GendarmerieDistrictsIIIandIV 150 4. DataRelatedtotheGhettoizationandDeportationofHungarianJewry byOperationalZonesandGendarmerieDistricts 153 5. LossesofHungarianJewryDuringWorldWarII 252 Maps 1. Hungary,1919–45 26 2. GendarmerieDistrictsandTheirHeadquarters,1944 71 11