THE PERENNIAL PHILOSOPHYBy Aldous Huxley * Novels TIME MUST HAVE A STOP AFTER MANY A SUMMER EYELESS IN GAZA BRAVE NEW WORLD POINT COUNTER POINT THOSE BARREN LEAVES ANTIC HAY CROME YELLOW Biography GREY EMINENCE Short Stories BRIEF CANDLES TWO OR THREE GRACES LITTLE MEXICAN MORTAL COILS LIMBO Essays and Belles Lettres SCIENCE, LIBERTY AND PEACE THE ART OF SEEING ENDS AND MEANS MUSIC AT NIGHT VULGARITY IN LITERATURE DO WHAT YOU WILL PROPER STUDIES JESTING PILATE ALONG THE ROAD ON THE MARGIN TEXTS AND PRETEXTS BEYOND THE MEXIQUE BAY THE OLIVE TREE Poetry THE CICADAS LEDA Drama THE WORLD OF LIGHT * Chatto & IVIndusALDOUS HUXLEY The Perennial Philosophy 1947 Chatto & Windus LONDON PUBLISHED BY Chatto & Windus LONDON * Oxford University Press TORONTO Applications regarding translation rights in any work by Aldous Huxley should be addressed to Chatto & Windus, 1 40 William IV Street, London, W.C. 2 FIRST PUBLISHED 1946 SECOND IMPRESSION 1947 PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN IN COMPLETE CONFORMITY Contents WITH THE AUTHORIZED ECONOMY STANDARDS ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Introduction page i Chapter i That Art Thou 7 11 The Nature of the Ground 29 hi Personality, Sanctity, Divine Incarnation 45 iv God in the World 69 v Charity95 vi Mortification, Non-Attachment, Right Livelihood 113 vii Truth 145 viii Religion and Temperament 168 ix Self-Knowledge 185 x Grace and Free Will 190 xi Good and Evil 202 xii Time and Eternity 212 xiii Salvation, Deliverance, Enlightenment 230 xiv Immortality and Survival 242 xv Silence 247 xvi Prayer 251 xvii Suffering 260 xviii Faith 268 xix God is not mocked 273 v vi THE PERENNIAL PHILOSOPHY Chapter xx Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum page 279 2 xxi Idolatry 287 xxii Emotionalism 292 xxiii The Miraculous 298 xxiv Ritual, Symbol, Sacrament 301 xxv Spiritual Exercises 314 xxvi Perseverance and Regularity 334 xxvii Contemplation, Action and Social Utility 337 Bibliography 346 A cknowledgments Index 353 For permission to use the following selections, grateful acknowledgment and thanks are extended to the following authors and publishers: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.: monkey and the way and its power, translated by Arthur Waley; letters, by Spinoza. Burns, Oates & Washbourne Ltd.: the cloud of unknowing, edited by McCann; the works of st. john of the cross, translated by Allison Piers. Cambridge University Press: studies in islamic mysticism, by R. A. Nicholson. J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.: adornment of the spiritual marriage, by Ruysbroeck, translated by Winschenk Dom. P. /. and A. E. Dobell: CENTURIES OF MEDITATION, by Thomas Traherne. Dwight Goddard Estate: a buddhist bible, by Dwight Goddard. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.: masnavi, by Jalal- uddin Rumi, translated by Whinfield. Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd.: the spirit of st. francis de sales, by Jean Pierre Camus, translated by Lear; Catherine of siena, by Johannes Jorgensen. Macmillan & Co. Ltd.: theologia germanica, translated by Winkworth; the spiritual reformers, by Rufus Jones; mysticism east and west, by Rudolph Otto; one hundred poems of kabir, by Rabindranath Tagore. John Murray and Mr. Lionel Giles : musings of a chinese mystic, from the wisdom of the east series, translated by Herbert Giles. Oxford University Press and Harvard University Press: the transformation of nature in art, by Amanda K. Coomaraswamy. Oxford University Press and The Pali Text Society: the path of purity, by Buddhaghosha. Oxford University Press: the tibetan book of the dead, translated by Dr. Evans-Wentz. Paramananda and the publishers of bhagavad-gita. George Routledge & Sons Ltd.: studies in the lankavatara sutra, by Suzuki. Sheed & Ward Ltd.: the mystical theology of st. Bernard, by Etienne Gilson. The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge: dionysius the areopagite, translated C. E. Rolt. John M. Watkins: works of meister eckhart, translated by Evans; the crest- jewel of wisdom, by Shankara, translated by Charles Johnston.INTRODUCTION P HILOSOPHIA PERENNIS—the phrase was coined by Leibniz; but the thing—the metaphysic that recognizes a divine Reality substantial to the world of things and lives and minds; the psychology that finds in the soul something similar to, or even identical with, divine Reality; the ethic that places man's final end in the knowledge of the immanent and transcendent Ground of all being—the thing is immemorial and universal. Rudiments of the Perennial Philosophy may be found among the traditionary lore of 3 primitive peoples in every region of the world, and in its fully developed forms it has a place in every one of the higher religions. A version of this Highest Common Factor in all preceding and subsequent theologies was first committed to writing more than twenty- five centuries ago, and since that time the inexhaustible theme has been treated again and again, from the standpoint of every religious tradition and in all the principal languages of Asia and Europe. In the pages that follow I have brought together a number of selections from these writings, chosen mainly for their significance—because they effectively illustrated some particular point in the general system of the Perennial Philosophy—but also for their intrinsic beauty and memorableness. These selections are arranged under various heads and embedded, so to speak, in a commentary of my own, designed to illustrate and connect, to develop and, where necessary, to elucidate. Knowledge is a function of being. When there is a change in the being of the knower, there is a corresponding change in the nature and amount of knowing. For example, the being of a child is transformed by growth and education into that of a man; among the results of this transformation is a revolutionary change in the way of knowing and the amount and character of the things known. As the individual grows up, his knowledge becomes more conceptual and systematic in form, and its a factual, utilitarian content is enormously increased. But these gains are offset by a certain deterioration in the quality of immediate apprehension, a blunting and a loss of intuitive power. Or consider the change in his being which the scientist is able to induce mechanically by means of his instruments. Equipped with a spectroscope and a sixty-inch reflector an astronomer becomes, so far as eyesight is concerned, a superhuman creature ; and, as we should naturally expect, the knowledge possessed by this superhuman creature is very different, both in quantity and quality, from that which can be acquired by a star- gazer with unmodified, merely human eyes. Nor are changes in the knower's physiological or intellectual being the only ones to affect his knowledge. What we know depends also on what, as moral beings, we choose to make ourselves. ' Practice,' in the words of William James, * may change our theoretical horizon, and this in a twofold way: it may lead into new worlds and secure new powers. Knowledge we could never attain, remaining what we are, may be attainable in consequence of higher powers and a higher life, which we may morally achieve.' To put the matter more succinctly, ' Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.' And the same idea has been expressed by the Sufi poet, Jalal-uddin Rumi, in terms of a scientific metaphor: 'The astrolabe of the mysteries of God is love.' This book, I repeat, is an anthology of the Perennial Philosophy; but, though an anthology, it contains but few extracts from the writings of professional men of letters and, though illustrating a philosophy, hardly anything from the professional philosophers. The reason for this is very simple. The Perennial Philosophy is primarily concerned with the one, divine Reality substantial to the manifold world of things and lives and minds. But the nature of this one Reality is such that it cannot be directly and immediately apprehended except by those who have chosen to fulfil certain conditions, making themselves loving, pure in heart, and poor in spirit. Why should this be so ? We do not know. It is just one of those facts which we have to accept, whether we like them or not andhowever implausible and unlikely they may seem. Nothing in our everyday experience gives us any reason for supposing that water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen; and yet when we subject water to certain rather drastic treatments, the nature of its constituent elements becomes manifest. Similarly, nothing in our everyday experience gives us much reason for supposing that the mind of the average sensual man has, as one of its constituents, something resembling, or identical with, the Reality substantial to the manifold world; and yet, when that mind is subjected to certain rather drastic treatments, the divine element, of which it is in part at least composed, becomes manifest, not only to the mind itself, but also, by its reflection in external behaviour, to other minds. It is only by making physical experiments that we can discover the intimate nature of matter and its potentialities. And it is only by making psychological and moral experiments that we can discover the 4 intimate nature of mind and its potentialities. In the ordinary circumstances of average sensual life these potentialities of the mind remain latent and unmanifested. If we would realize them, we must fulfil certain conditions and obey certain rules, which experience has shown empirically to be valid. In regard to few professional philosophers and men of letters is there any evidence that they did very much in the way of fulfilling the necessary conditions of direct spiritual knowledge. When poets or metaphysicians talk about the subject matter of the Perennial Philosophy, it is generally at second hand. But in every age there have been some men and women who chose to fulfil the conditions upon which alone, as a matter of brute empirical fact, such immediate knowledge can be had; and of these a few have left accounts of the Reality they were thus enabled to apprehend and have tried to relate, in one comprehensive system of thought, the given facts of this experience with the given facts of their other experiences. To such firsthand exponents of the Perennial Philosophy those who knew them have generally given the name of 'saint' or 'prophet,' ' sage9 or * enlightened one.' And it is mainly to these, because there is good reason for supposing that they knew what theywere talking about, and not to the professional philosophers or men of letters, that I have gone for my selections. In India two classes of scripture are recognized: the Shruti, or inspired writings which are their own authority, since they are the product of immediate insight into ultimate Reality; and the Smriti, which are based upon the Shruti and from them derive such authority as they have. ' The Shruti,' in Shankara's words, 'depends upon direct perception. The Smriti plays a part analogous to induction, since, like induction, it derives its authority from an authority other than itself.' This book, then, is an anthology, with explanatory comments, of passages drawn from the Shruti and Smriti of many times and places. Unfortunately, familiarity with traditionally hallowed writings tends to breed, not indeed contempt, but something which, for practical purposes, is almost as bad—namely a kind of reverential insensibility, a stupor of the spirit, an inward deafness to the meaning of the sacred words. For this reason, when selecting material to illustrate the doctrines of the Perennial Philosophy, as they were formulated in the West, I have gone almost always to sources other than the Bible. This Christian Smriti, from which I have drawn, is based upon the Shruti of the canonical books, but has the great advantage of being less well known and therefore more vivid and, so to say, more audible than they are. Moreover, much of this Smriti is the work of genuinely saintly men and women, who have qualified themselves to know at first hand what they are talking about. Consequently it may be regarded as being itself a form of inspired and self- validating Shruti—and this in a much higher degree than many of the writings now included in the Biblical canon. In recent years a number of attempts have been made to work out a system of empirical theology. But in spite of the subtlety and intellectual power of such writers as Sorley, Oman and Tennant, the effort has met with only a partial success. Even in the hands of its ablest exponents empirical theology is not particularly convincing. The reason, it seems to me, must be sought in the fact that the empirical theologians have confined their attention more or less exclusively to theexperience of those whom the theologians of an older school called 'the unregenerate'—that is to say, the experience of people who have not gone very far in fulfilling the necessary conditions of spiritual knowledge. But it is a fact, confirmed and re-confirmed during two or three thousand years of reli- gious history, that the ultimate Reality is not clearly and immediately apprehended, except by those who have made themselves loving, pure in heart and poor in spirit. This being so, it is hardly surprising that a theology based upon the experience of nice, ordinary, unregenerate people should carry so little conviction. This kind of empirical theology is on precisely the same footing as an empirical astronomy, based upon the experience of naked-eye observers. With the unaided eye a small, faint smudge can be detected in the constellation of Orion, and doubtless an imposing cosmological theory could be based upon the observation of this smudge. But no amount of such theorizing, however ingenious, could ever tell us as much about the galactic and extra- galactic nebulae as can direct acquaintance by means of a good telescope, camera and spectroscope. Analogously, no amount of theorizing about such hints as may be darkly 5 glimpsed within the ordinary, unregenerate experience of the manifold world can tell us as much about divine Reality as can be directly apprehended by a mind in a state of detachment, charity and humility. Natural science is empirical; but it does not confine itself to the experience of human beings in their merely human and unmodified condi- tion. Why empirical theologians should feel themselves obliged to submit to this handicap, goodness only knows. And of course, so long as they confine empirical experience within these all too human limits, they are doomed to the perpetual stultification of their best efforts. From the material they have chosen to consider, no mind, however brilliantly gifted, can infer more than a set of possibilities or, at the very best, specious probabilities. The self-validating certainty of direct awareness cannot in the very nature of things be achieved except by those equipped with the moral 'astrolabe of God's mysteries.' If one is not oneself a sage or saint, the best thing one can do, in the field of metaphysics, is to study the works of those who were, and who, because they had modified their merely human mode of being, were capable of a more than merely human kind and amount of knowledge.Chapter i THAT ART THOU I N studying the Perennial Philosophy we can begin either at the bottom, with practice and morality; or at the top, with a consideration of metaphysical truths; or, finally, in the middle, at the focal point where mind and matter, action and thought have their meeting place in human psychology. The lower gate is that preferred by strictly practical teachers —men who, like Gautama Buddha, have no use for speculation and whose primary concern is to put out in men's hearts the hideous fires of greed, resentment and infatuation. Through the upper gate go those whose vocation it is to think and speculate—the born philosophers and theologians. The middle gate gives entrance to the exponents of what has been called 'spiritual religion'—the devout contemplatives of India, the Sufis of Islam, the Catholic mystics of the later Middle Ages, and, in the Protestant tradition, such men as Denk and Franck and Castellio, as Everard and John Smith and the first Quakers and William Law. It is through this central door, and just because it is central, that we shall make our entry into the subject matter of this book. The psychology of the Perennial Philosophy has its source in metaphysics and issues logically in a characteristic way of life and system of ethics. Starting from this mid-point of doctrine, it is easy for the mind to move in either direction. In the present section we shall confine our attention to but a single feature of this traditional psychology—the most important, the most emphatically insisted upon by all exponents of the Perennial Philosophy and, we may add, the least psychological. For the doctrine that is to be illustrated in this section belongs to autology rather than psychology—to the science, not of the personal ego, but of that eternal Self in the depth of particular, individualized selves, and identical with, or at least akin to, the 7777 divine Ground. Based upon the direct experience of those who have fulfilled the necessary conditions of such knowledge, this teaching is expressed most succinctly in the Sanskrit formula, tat tvam asi ('That art thou'); the Atman, or immanent eternal Self, is one with Brahman, the Absolute Principle of all existence; and the last end of every human being is to discover the fact for himself, to find out Who he really is. The more God is in all things, the more He is outside them. The more He is within, the more without. Eckhart Only the transcendent, the completely other, can be immanent without being modified by the becoming of that in which it dwells. The Perennial Philosophy teaches that it is desirable and indeed necessary to know the spiritual Ground of things, not only within the soul, but also outside in the world and, beyond world and soul, in its transcendent 6 otherness—'in heaven.' Though GOD is everywhere present, yet He is only present to thee in the deepest and most central part of thy soul. The natural senses cannot possess God or unite thee to Him; nay, thy inward faculties of understanding, will and memory can only reach after God, but cannot be the place of His habitation in thee. But there is a root or depth of thee from whence all these faculties come forth, as lines from a centre, or as branches from the body of the tree. This depth is called the centre, the fund or bottom of the soul. This depth is the unity, the eternity—I had almost said the infinity—of thy soul; for it is so infinite that nothing can satisfy it or give it rest but the infinity of God. William Law This extract seems to contradict what was said above; but the contradiction is not a real one. God within and God without —these are two abstract notions, which can be entertained by the understanding and expressed in words. But the facts to which these notions refer cannot be realized and experienced except in 4 the deepest and most central part of the soul.' And this is true no less of God without than of God within. But though the two abstract notions have to be realized (to use a spatial metaphor) in the same place, the intrinsic nature of the realization of God within is qualitatively different from that of the realization of God without, and each in turn is different from that of the realization of the Ground as simultaneously within and without—as the Self of the perceiver and at the same time (in the words of the Bhagavad-Gita) as 'That by which all this world is pervaded.' When Svetaketu was twelve years old he was sent to a teacher, with whom he studied until he was twenty-four. After learning all the Vedas, he returned home full of conceit in the belief that he was consummately well educated, and very censorious. His father said to him, ' Svetaketu, my child, you who are so full of your learning and so censorious, have you asked for that knowledge by which we hear the unhearable, by which we perceive what cannot be perceived and know what cannot be known ?' 'What is that knowledge, sir?' asked Svetaketu. His father replied, 'As by knowing one lump of clay all that is made of clay is known, the difference being only in name, but the truth being that all is clay—so, my child, is that knowledge, knowing which we know all.' 'But surely these venerable teachers of mine are ignorant of this knowledge; for if they possessed it they would have imparted it to me. Do you, sir, therefore give me that knowledge.' 4 So be it,' said the father.... And he said,' Bring me a fruit of the nyagrodha tree.' 'Here is one, sir.' 'Break it.' 'It is broken, sir.' 'What do you see there?' 'Some seeds, sir, exceedingly small.' ' Break one of these.' ' It is broken, sir.' 'What do you see there?''Nothing at all.' The father said, 'My son, that subtle essence which you do not perceive there—in that very essence stands the being of the huge nyagrodha tree. In that which is the subtle essence all that exists has its self. That is the True, that is the Self, and thou, Svetaketu, art That/ 'Pray, sir/ said the son, 'tell me more.' 'Be it so, my child,' the father replied; and he said, 'Place this salt in water, and come to me tomorrow morning.' The son did as he was told. Next morning the father said,' Bring me the salt which you put in the water.' The son looked for it, but could not find it; for the salt, of course, had dissolved. 7 The father said,' Taste some of the water from the surface of the vessel. How is it?' 'Salty.' ' Taste some from the middle. How is it ?' 'Salty.' 'Taste some from the bottom. How is it?' 'Salty.' The father said, 'Throw the water away and then come back to me again/ The son did so; but the salt was not lost, for salt exists for ever. Then the father said, 'Here likewise in this body of yours, my son, you do not perceive the True; but there in fact it is. In that which is the subtle essence, all that exists has its self. That is the True, that is the Self, and thou, Svetaketu, ait That.' From the Chctndogya Upanishad The man who wishes to know the 'That' which is 'thou' may set to work in any one of three ways. He may begin by looking inwards into his own particular thou and, by a process of'dying to self'—self in reasoning, self in willing, self in feeling—come at last to a knowledge of the Self, the Kingdom of God that is within. Or else he may begin with the thous existing outside himself, and may try to realize their essential unity with God and, through God, with one another and with his own being. Or, finally (and this is doubtless the best way), he may seek to approach the ultimate That both from within and from without, so that he comes to realize God experimentally as at once the principle of his own thou and of all other thous, animate and inanimate. The completely illuminated human being knows, with Law, that God4 is present in the deepest and most central part of his own soul'; but he is also and at the same time one of those who, in the words of Plotinus, see all things, not in process of becoming, but in Being, and see themselves in the other. Each being contains in itself the whole intelligible world. Therefore All is everywhere. Each is there All, and All is each. Man as he now is has ceased to be the All. But when he ceases to be an individual, he raises himself again and penetrates the whole world. It is from the more or less obscure intuition of the oneness that is the ground and principle of all multiplicity that philosophy takes its source. And not alone philosophy, but natural science as well. All science, in Meyerson's phrase, is the reduction of multiplicities to identities. Divining the One within and beyond the many, we find an intrinsic plausibility in any explanation of the diverse in terms of a single principle. The philosophy of the Upanishads reappears, developed and enriched, in the Bhagavad-Gita and was finally systematized, in the ninth century of our era, by Shankara. Shankara's teaching (simultaneously theoretical and practical, as is that of all true exponents of the Perennial Philosophy) is summarized in his versified treatise, Viveka-Chudamani ('The Crest-Jewel of Wisdom'). All the following passages are taken from this conveniently brief and untechnical work. The Atman is that by which the universe is pervaded, but which nothing pervades; which causes all things to shine, but which all things cannot make to shine. . . . The nature of the one Reality must be known by one's own clear spiritual perception; it cannot be known through a pandit (learned man). Similarly the form of the moon can only be known through one's own eyes. How can it be known through others ? Who but the Atman is capable of removing the bonds of ignorance, passion and self- interested action ? . .. Liberation cannot be achieved except by the perception of the identity of the individual spirit with the universal Spirit. It can be achieved neither by Yoga (physical training), nor by Sankhya (speculative philosophy), nor by the practice of religious ceremonies, nor by mere learning. . . . 8 Disease is not cured by pronouncing the name of medicine, but by taking medicine. Deliverance is not achieved by repeating the word 4 Brahman,' but by directly experiencing Brahman. . . . The Atman is the Witness of die individual mind and its operations. It is absolute knowledge. . . . The wise man is one who understands that the essence of Brahman and of Atman is Pure Consciousness, and who realizes their absolute identity. The identity of Brahman and Atman is affirmed in hundreds of sacred texts. . . . Caste, creed, family and lineage do not exist in Brahman. Brahman has neither name nor form, transcends merit and demerit, is beyond time, space and the objects of sense- experience. Such is Brahman, and 'thou art That.' Meditate upon this truth within your consciousness. Supreme, beyond the power of speech to express, Brahman may yet be apprehended by the eye of pure illumination. Pure, absolute and eternal Reality—such is Brahman, and 'thou art That.' Meditate upon this truth within your consciousness. . . .Though One, Brahman is the cause of the many. There is no other cause. And yet Brahman is independent of the law of causation. Such is Brahman, and4 thou art That.' Meditate upon this truth within your consciousness. . . . The truth of Brahman may be understood intellectually. But (even in those who so understand) the desire for personal separ- ateness is deep-rooted and powerful, for it exists from beginning- less time. It creates the notion, 'I am the actor, I am he who experiences.' This notion is the cause of bondage to conditional existence, birth and death. It can be removed only by the earnest effort to live constantly in union with Brahman. By the sages, the eradication of this notion and the craving for personal separ- ateness is called Liberation. It is ignorance that causes us to identify ourselves with the body, the ego, the senses, or anything that is not the Atman. He is a wise man who overcomes this ignorance by devotion to the Atman. . . . When a man follows the way of the world, or the way of the flesh, or the way of tradition (i.e. when he believes in religious rites and the letter of the scriptures, as though they were intrinsically sacred), knowledge of Reality cannot arise in him. The wise say that this threefold way is like an iron chain, binding the feet of him who aspires to escape from the prison-house of this world. He who frees himself from the chain achieves Deliverance. Shankara In the Taoist formulations of the Perennial Philosophy there is an insistence, no less forcible than in the Upanishads, the Gita and the writings of Shankara, upon the universal immanence of the transcendent spiritual Ground of all existence. What follows is an extract from one of the great classics of Taoist literature, the Book of Chuang Tzu, most of which seems to havebeen written around the turn of the fourth and third centuries b.c. Do not ask whether the Principle is in this or in that; it is in all beings. It is on this account that we apply to it the epithets of supreme, universal, total.... It has ordained that all things should be limited, but is Itself unlimited, infinite. As to what pertains to manifestation, the Principle causes the succession of its phases, but is not this succession. It is the author of causes and effects, but is not the causes and effects. It is the author of condensations and dissipations (birth and death, changes of state), but is not itself condensations and dissipations. All proceeds from It and is under its influence. It is in all things, but is not identical with beings, for it is neither differentiated nor limited. 9 Chuang Tiu From Taoism we pass to that Mahayana Buddhism which, in the Far East, came to be so closely associated with Taoism, borrowing and bestowing until the two came at last to be fused in what is known as Zen. The Lankavatara Sutra, from which the following extract is taken, was the scripture which the founder of Zen Buddhism expressly recommended to his first disciples. Those who vainly reason without understanding the truth are lost in the jungle of the Vijnanas (the various forms of relative knowledge), running about here and there and trying to justify their view of ego-substance. The self realized in your inmost consciousness appears in its purity; this is the Tathagata-garbha (literally, Buddha-womb), which is not the realm of those given over to mere reasoning.... Pure in its own nature and free from the category of finite and infinite, Universal Mind is the undefiled Buddha-womb, which is wrongly apprehended by sentient beings. Lankavatara Sutra One Nature, perfect and pervading, circulates in all natures, One Reality, all- comprehensive, contains within itself all realities. The one Moon reflects itself wherever there is a sheet of water,And all the moons in the waters are embraced within the one Moon. The Dharma-body (the Absolute) of all the Buddhas enters into my own being. And my own being is found in union with theirs. . . . The Inner Light is beyond praise and blame; Like space it knows no boundaries, Yet it is even here, within us, ever retaining its serenity and fullness. It is only when you hunt for it that you lose it; You cannot take hold of it, but equally you cannot get rid of it, And while you can do neither, it goes on its own way. You remain silent and it speaks; you speak, and it is dumb; The great gate of charity is wide open, with no obstacles before it. Ywtg-chia. Ta-shih I am not competent, nor is this the place to discuss the doctrinal differences between Buddhism and Hinduism. Let it suffice to point out that, when he insisted that human beings are by nature 'non-Atman,' the Buddha was evidently speaking about the personal self and not the universal Self. The Brahman controversialists, who appear in certain of the Pali scriptures, never so much as mention the Vedanta doctrine of the identity of Atman and Godhead and the non-identity of ego and Atman. What they maintain and Gautama denies is the substantial nature and eternal persistence of the individual psyche. £ As an unintelligent man seeks for the abode of music in the body of the lute, so does he look for a soul within the skctndhas (the material and psychic aggregates, of which the individual mind-body is composed)/ About the existence of the Atman that is Brahman, as about most other metaphysical matters, the Buddha declines to speak, on the ground that such discussions do not tend to edification or spiritual progress among the members of a monastic order, such as he had founded. But though it has its dangers, though it may become the most absorbing, because the most serious and noblest, of distractions, metaphysical thinking is unavoidable and finally necessary. Even the Hinayanists found this, and the later Mahayanists were to develop, in connection with the practice of their religion, a splendid and imposing system of cosmo- logical, ethical and psychological thought. This system was based upon the postulates of a strict idealism and professed to dispense with the idea of God. But moral and spiritual experience was too strong for philosophical theory, and under the inspiration of direct experience, the writers of the Mahayana sutras found themselves using all their ingenuity to explain why the Tathagata and the Bodhisattvas display an infinite charity towards beings that do not really exist. At the same time they stretched the framework of subjective idealism so as to make room for Universal Mind; qualified the idea of soullessness with the doctrine that, if purified, the 10