The Non-Corporeal Actant as a Link between Actor-Network Theory and Critical Sensemaking: A Case Study of Air Canada By Christopher M. Hartt A Thesis Submitted to Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration March, 2013, Halifax, Nova Scotia Copyright Christopher M. Hartt, 2013 Approved: Dr. Jean Helms Mills Supervisor Approved: Dr. Bill Cooke Examiner Approved: Dr. Albert J. Mills Reader Approved: Dr. Amy Thurlow Reader Approved: Dr. Gabrielle Durepos Reader Date: March 14, 2013 The Non-Corporeal Actant Abstract The Non-Corporeal Actant as a Link between Actor-Network Theory and Critical Sensemaking: A Case Study of Air Canada By Christopher M. Hartt This thesis explores the relationship between the choices made by individuals and the influences of the groups to which those individuals belong. To interrogate the nature of groups, the thesis employs ideas from actor-network theory. In the investigation of individuals and their choices, work from critical sensemaking theory is applied. The theoretical contribution of the thesis is the bringing together of these two significant areas of research. The second theoretical contribution is the development of a connecting link between critical sensemaking and actor-network theory described herein as the non- corporeal actant. This newly described form of actant seems to be a plausible means of crossing the gap between the nature of groups from actor-network theory and the choices of individuals as described by critical sensemaking. The work which produced these plausible linkages was a study of one significant event in the history of Air Canada. The case material centres on the appointment of the new CEO for the organization in 1968. An ANTi-History approach was used to follow the actors around in three distinct, but interrelated, networks: Air Canada management; the Federal Government; and the employees. The histories written about these three groups covering the period seem to adopt three very different perspectives on the CEO appointment. By following a series of moves (research steps), both the nature of the groups and the chroniclers’ sensemaking are surfaced. In turn, these moves appear to demonstrate powerful influence from the non-corporeal actants on the choices made by the authors of the histories. Submitted: March 14, 2013 2 The Non-Corporeal Actant Acknowledgements Central to my success has been my wife, Gretchen Pohlkamp. Gretchen not only put up with my irascible behaviour but she also read commented on and corrected me with every draft of this dissertation. My family, my sons, Joshua and Noah Pohlkamp- Hartt, my siblings and my nieces and nephews have also been great moral support. The questions of “When are you going to be done?” were motivators in those tought days. Jean Helms Mills has been with me every step to the thesis researching, writing and defense process, I owe her much for all the help. The other members of my committee have also been magnanimous in their assistance with the ideas and execution of this work. The other students and alumni of the Sobey PhD program have also been there for me, provided me with feedback and much needed challenge and support over these years. The cooperative nature of the students in this program has been wonderful. I would like to mention my late parents, Leo and Kay Hartt. My dad taught us the value of formal education, he continued his into his 50’s. I hope my children will inherit this constant search for knowledge. My mom was very supportive of my education and also committed to the development of the mind. I was blessed to have her with me for the first few years of the PhD. Both my parents act as NCAs in my continued pursuit of knowledge. 3 The Non-Corporeal Actant Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................ 3 Contents .......................................................................................................... 4 Cast of Characters and Groups .................................................................. 10 The Essential Narrative - A Change at the Top of Air Canada .............. 13 Chapter One – Introduction ....................................................................... 15 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 15 1: Enactors, enactments and sites of production ................................................... 17 2: Networks in the past and present ....................................................................... 18 Theoretical Perspectives .................................................................................................... 19 1: Sensemaking and critical sensemaking .............................................................. 19 2: Actor-network theory and ANTi-History .......................................................... 23 Towards the Idea of the Non-Corporeal Actant: Fusions of ANT and CSM .................... 25 The non-corporeal actant and its discursive role .................................................. 28 Air Canada: A Case Study of Network Persistence, Sensemaking and the Past ............... 31 The Thesis in Summary ..................................................................................................... 34 Chapter Two – Actor-Network Theory ..................................................... 35 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 35 Actor-Network Theory ....................................................................................................... 37 An Outline of Actor-Network Theory Terms .................................................................... 40 1: Networks, action-nets and worknets ................................................................. 42 2: Actors, actants, traces ......................................................................................... 44 3: Punctualization and multiplicity ........................................................................ 47 4: Inscriptions .......................................................................................................... 49 5: Oscillation ............................................................................................................ 50 6: Recruitment, enroll, de-enroll, and translation ................................................ 51 7: Mobilization, interessement ............................................................................... 53 8: Mediators, intermediaries .................................................................................. 55 9: Clamps .................................................................................................................. 56 10: The oligopticon ................................................................................................... 58 11: The social ............................................................................................................. 60 Central Developments in the ‘ANT and After’ Literature ................................................. 62 ANT and Science ............................................................................................................... 63 4 The Non-Corporeal Actant Arduous Review of Empirical Material ............................................................................. 67 History as Controversy ...................................................................................................... 69 Case Analysis in Actor-Network Theory ........................................................................... 70 Discourse Versus Knowledge ............................................................................................ 72 The Social Process in Causation ........................................................................................ 73 The Role of Discourse ....................................................................................................... 74 Power and Persistence ........................................................................................................ 76 Production of Knowledge .................................................................................................. 77 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 80 Chapter Three – Critical Sensemaking ..................................................... 84 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 84 The Framework of Sensemaking Theory ........................................................................... 88 1. Grounded in identity construction ..................................................................... 89 2. Retrospective ........................................................................................................ 90 3. Focused on and by extracted cues ...................................................................... 90 4. Driven by plausibility rather than accuracy ..................................................... 91 5. Enactive of the environment ............................................................................... 91 6. Social ..................................................................................................................... 92 7. Ongoing ................................................................................................................ 92 Critical Sensemaking Described ........................................................................................ 98 The Role of Rules ............................................................................................................ 100 Why Critical Sensemaking: What is Missing in Sensemaking? ...................................... 104 Situating a Sensemaker .................................................................................................... 112 1. The nature of the problem ................................................................................ 112 2. The clarity of the problem ................................................................................ 112 3. Paucity of information ...................................................................................... 113 4. Clashers of values, politics and emotions ........................................................ 113 5. Possible outcomes and understanding ............................................................. 113 6. Scarcity of resources .......................................................................................... 114 7. Paradoxes ........................................................................................................... 114 8. Lack of clear roles ............................................................................................. 115 9. Measure of success ............................................................................................. 116 10. Lack of clarity in choices and outcomes ......................................................... 116 11. Clear symbols and metaphors ......................................................................... 117 12. Changes in the power structure ...................................................................... 117 Evolution to the Critical ................................................................................................... 118 Individuation and the Link to Actor-Network Theory ..................................................... 119 5 The Non-Corporeal Actant Summary .......................................................................................................................... 121 Chapter Four – The Non-Corporeal Actant ........................................... 125 From CSM and ANT to Making Sense in the Network ................................................... 131 The transparency of inputs and knowledge production ..................................... 131 Narratives, legitimacy and the production of knowledge ................................... 132 Network effects, cohesion, and legitimacy and associated narratives ............... 133 Agreement, adhocracy, and punctualization ....................................................... 134 Network power and sensemaking ......................................................................... 134 Enrollment durability ............................................................................................ 135 Ideas, concepts and NCAs ...................................................................................... 136 Examples of the power of ideas ............................................................................. 137 Past ideas and current sensemaking ..................................................................... 138 CSM and truth ........................................................................................................ 139 Towards the Idea of the Non-Corporeal Actant ............................................................... 141 The role of the past and history ............................................................................. 142 Enrollment and choice ........................................................................................... 143 The ghost of an idea ................................................................................................ 144 Socialization and identity work ............................................................................. 145 Sensemaking ............................................................................................................ 145 Network control ...................................................................................................... 147 Sensemaking Properties at Work ..................................................................................... 148 Retrospection .......................................................................................................... 148 Identity construction .............................................................................................. 149 Enactment ............................................................................................................... 152 The social in sensemaking ...................................................................................... 152 Ongoing reality ....................................................................................................... 154 Plausibility ............................................................................................................... 155 Being on cue ............................................................................................................ 156 Praxis - Historically Networked Sensemaking in Action ................................................ 156 Table 1: Proposed Seven Moves for Surfacing NCAs ........................................ 158 Move 1: Identify the problematic event ................................................................ 159 Move 2: Identify the actors and corporeal actants in the networks .................. 160 Move 3: Surface the possible locations of sensemaking activities ...................... 161 Move 4: Identify sensemaking properties of the events ...................................... 162 Move 5: Identify enrollments and de-enrollments of human actors (and networks) ................................................................................................................. 165 Move 6: Identify the NCAs enrolled and de-enrolled ......................................... 165 Move 7: Identify the persistent NCAs linked to de-enrolled human actors ...... 166 6 The Non-Corporeal Actant Summary .......................................................................................................................... 168 Chapter Five – Method and Methodology .............................................. 170 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 170 Naturally Occurring Data ................................................................................................. 172 Incident Choice ................................................................................................................ 173 The Study of One Event from Three Perspectives ........................................................... 174 Informed by Critical Sensemaking and Actor-Network Theory ...................................... 176 History and Historiography .............................................................................................. 177 Case Study ....................................................................................................................... 179 Cluster and Thematic Analysis ........................................................................................ 180 Use of Moves ................................................................................................................... 180 Archival Research ............................................................................................................ 181 1. Theoretical basis for archival research ........................................................... 182 2. Strengths of archival research .......................................................................... 183 3. Method of archive searching ............................................................................ 184 4. Limitations of archival research ...................................................................... 186 5. Method of collection and selecting ................................................................... 188 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 190 Chapter Six – The Management Perspective .......................................... 192 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 192 Traces ............................................................................................................................... 193 The Narratives .................................................................................................................. 194 Move 1: Identify the problematic event ............................................................... 199 Move 2: Identify the actors and corporeal actants in the networks ................. 200 Move 3: Surface the possible locations of sensemaking activities ..................... 204 Move 4: Identify sensemaking properties of the events ..................................... 206 Move 5: Identify enrollments and de-enrollments of human actors (and networks) ................................................................................................................. 209 Move 6: Identify the NCAs enrolled and de-enrolled ........................................ 211 Move 7: Identify the persistent NCAs linked to de-enrolled human actors ..... 213 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 214 Chapter Seven – Governing Liberal Party Perspective ......................... 216 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 216 Traces ............................................................................................................................... 217 The Liberal Government Narrative .................................................................................. 218 Move 1: Identify the problematic event ............................................................... 220 7 The Non-Corporeal Actant Move 2: Identify the actors and corporeal actants in the networks ................. 222 Move 3: Surface the possible locations of sensemaking activities ..................... 226 Move 4: Identify sensemaking properties of the events ..................................... 227 Move 5: Identify enrollments and de-enrollments of human actors (and networks) ................................................................................................................. 229 Move 6: Identify the NCAs enrolled and de-enrolled ........................................ 231 Move 7: Identify the persistent NCAs linked to de-enrolled human actors ..... 232 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 233 Chapter Eight – Air Canada Employee Perspective .............................. 236 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 236 Traces ............................................................................................................................... 238 The Narrative of Air Canada Employees ......................................................................... 238 Move 1: Identify the problematic event ............................................................... 241 Move 2: Identify the actors and corporeal actants in the networks ................. 242 Move 3: Surface the possible locations of sensemaking activities ..................... 244 Move 4: Identify sensemaking properties of the events ..................................... 246 Move 5: Identify enrollments and de-enrollments of human actors (and networks) ................................................................................................................. 248 Move 6: Identify the NCAs enrolled and de-enrolled. ....................................... 249 Move 7: Identify the persistent NCAs linked to de-enrolled human actors ..... 250 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 250 Chapter Nine – Conclusions ..................................................................... 254 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 254 Discussion of the Theoretical and Methodological Contributions ................................. 259 1. Bringing together of ANT and CMS ............................................................ 259 2. The non-corporeal actant .............................................................................. 260 3. All ideas, beliefs, values, and concepts as potential NCAs ......................... 261 4. The seven moves as a methodological strategy ............................................ 261 5. Focus on histories and political character of history production .............. 262 6. Network of publication - retrospective and prospective sensemaking ...... 262 7. Clamping three networks in interaction ...................................................... 264 8. Focus on one event from three perspectives as methodological strategy .. 264 Contributions from the Empirical Studies of Air Canada ................................................ 265 1. Understanding a period at Air Canada through three views .................... 265 2. Unions and employees Pratte period as time of antagonism with AC ...... 266 3. High government involvement demonstrated in Air Canada operations . 267 4. Union attitudes toward Air Canada and Canadian Airlines differ ........... 268 8 The Non-Corporeal Actant 5. Pilots showed disdain for the managers of the Pratte period .................... 268 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 269 Limitations ....................................................................................................................... 270 Future Research ............................................................................................................... 271 Concluding Thoughts ....................................................................................................... 272 References ............................................................................................ 273 Table of Figures Figure 1 - Situating Actor-Network Theory in the Thesis ........................................... 27 Figure 2 - Situating Critical Sensemaking ..................................................................... 27 Figure 3 - The Sensemaker in the Actor-Network ........................................................ 82 Figure 4 - The Sensemaker in the Context of Influences ........................................... 122 Figure 5 - Making Sense in the Network ..................................................................... 255 9 The Non-Corporeal Actant Cast of Characters and Groups Throughout this thesis there are many characters from within Air Canada, the government of Canada and surrounding groups who play significant roles. This table provides a convenient collection of those names and their background for the reader.  Air Canada (AC) – Originally named Trans Canada Airlines in 1937  Axworthy, Lloyd – in 1968, executive assistant to Minister of Transport, he who later represented Winnipeg for the Trudeau Liberals and was a prominent Cabinet Minister  Baggage handlers – unionized group of employees, whose 1967 strikes forced Liberal Government to intervene  Baldwin, John R. – Chairman of the Air Transport Board (1949) then Deputy Minister of Transportation (until 1968), who later became President of Air Canada 1968-74 (but not the CEO)  Canadian Flight Attendants Association – later merged into Canadian Union of Public Employees  Chretien, Jean – Member of Parliament 1963 to 2003 (except 1986 to 1990), he held various prominent Cabinet positions in the Trudeau period, was a key Trudeau follower, and was Prime Minister from 1993 to 2003  Drummond, Clint – Executive Assistant to the Minister of Finance in 1967-1968  Drummond, Kevin – Executive Assistant to the President of the Treasury Board (1968), copied on letters and memos  Fortin, Paul – Executive Assistant to the Minister of Industry Trade and Commerce (1968), copied on letters and memos  Government of Canada  Hellyer, Paul – Transport Minister 1968-1969, previously Minister of National Defense, lost Liberal leadership to Pierre Trudeau in 1968, left the Liberal Party in 1969, joined the Conservative party in 1971, formed the Canadian Action Party in 1997  Howe, C.D. – the political founder of AC, (who in his role of Senior Minister in the MacKenzie King Liberal Government instructed McGregor to “stay out of the taxpayers pockets”), and was the minister responsible for the airline in the Liberal Governments from two years prior to TCAs founding in 1937 to his retirement in 1957, frequently called “The Minister of Everything” in the MacKenzie King Liberal Governments  Hughes, Howard – Pilot, Owner of Transworld Airlines (among other things)  Lalonde, Marc – Principal Secretary to Pierre Trudeau in 1968 was elected to parliament in 1972 and served in several Cabinet posts including Minister of Finance in the 1980s.  Lothian, George – Air Canada pilot, one of the first hired in 1937, retired in 1968, member of the Canadian Aviation Hall of Fame 10