Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 1, by Various This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 1 A to Amide Author: Various Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34073] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 1 *** Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net THE NEW GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME I EDITORS ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B.ès L. R. F. PATTERSON, M.A.(Cantab.), D.Litt.(Glasgow). JOHN DOUGALL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.; Gold Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. ALGAE Frontispiece: Algae 1, The very broad Ulva. 2, Cornucopia. 3, Caulerpa Cactoides. 4, Acetabularia Mediterranea. 5, Bladder-locks. 6, Long-stalked Laminaria. 7, Sugared Laminaria. 8, Bladder Wrack. 9, Serrated Wrack. 10, Gulf-weed. 11, Thalassiophyllum Clathrus. 12, Forked Dictyota. 13, Medicinal Coralline. 14, Corallina Rubens. 15, Delesseria Lyalii. 16, Nitophyllum Crosieri. 17, Membrane- leaved Phyllophira. 18, Peacock's-tail Padina. 19, Banded Taonia. THE NEW . GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME . I Publishers Mark The GRESHAM . PUBLISHING COMPANY . Limited 66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND LONDON W.C.2. 1922 LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS VOLUME I PLATES Page Algæ (Coloured) Frontispiece Aeroplane 44 Air-ships 72 Anatomy (Human Skeleton and Muscles) 152 Archæology (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) 220 Architecture 224 Bacteria 348 MAPS IN COLOUR Africa 52 Asia 274 Australia 316 CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I Adolphe Abrahams, O.B.E., B.A., M.D., late Major, R.A.M.C. George E. Allan, D.Sc., Lecturer in Electricity, University of Glasgow. R. E. Anderson, Maker of Artificial Limbs. F. L. Attenborough, B.A., Emmanuel College, Cambridge. F. F. P. Bisacre, O.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E. R. M. Brown, B.Sc. Grenville A. J. Cole, F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Royal College of Science, Ireland. Arthur O. Cooke, Author of A Book of Dovecotes. J. R. Ainsworth Davis, M.A., F.C.P., former Principal of The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Montagu Drummond, M.A., Lecturer in Botany, University of Glasgow. Charles J. Ffoulkes, B.Litt., Major, R.M.; Curator of the Armouries, Tower of London. F. Morley Fletcher, Director, College of Art, Edinburgh. Rev. William Fulton, D.D., B.Sc., Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Aberdeen. L. Haden Guest, M.C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. R. N. Haygarth, B.A., B.Sc., Queens' College, Cambridge. W. A. Hislop, M.B., late Captain, R.A.M.C. Donald A. Mackenzie, Folklorist; Author of Egyptian Myth and Legend, &c. Magnus Maclean, M.A., D.Sc., M.Inst.E.E., M.Inst.C.E., Editor of Modern Electrical Engineering, &c. W. Lockwood Marsh, O.B.E., M.A., A.F.R.Ae.S., Lieutenant-Colonel; late R.A.F.; Secretary of the Royal Aeronautical Society. D. J. Mackellor, B.Sc., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Royal Technical College, Glasgow. R. F. Patterson, M.A., D.Litt., formerly Charles Oldham Shakespeare Scholar, Cambridge University. Angelo S. Rappoport, Ph.D., B. ès L. James Ritchie, M.A., M.D., Professor of Bacteriology, University of Edinburgh. W. D. Robieson, M.A. John J. Ross, M.A., F.R.A.S. George Smith, Procurator Fiscal. G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, University of London. C. S. Stooks, D.S.O., Major, Indian Army; Instructor in Military Organization, Royal Military College, Sandhurst. M. M. J. Sutherland, D.Sc., F.I.C. Thomas G. Wright, LL.B., Professor of Mercantile Law, University of Glasgow. KEY TO PRONUNCIATION The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:— VOWELS ā, as in fate, or in bare. ä, as in alms, Fr. âme, Ger. Bahn = á of Indian names. a, the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. bal, Ger. Mann. a, as in fat. a, as in fall. a, obscure, as in rural, similar to u in but, ė in her: common in Indian names. ē, as in me = i in machine. e, as in met. ė, as in her. ī, as in pine, or as ei in Ger. mein. i, as in pin, also used for the short sound corresponding to ē, as in French and Italian words. eu, a long sound as in Fr. jeûne = Ger. long ö, as in Söhne, Göthe (Goethe). eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. peu = Ger. ö short. ō, as in note, moan. o, as in not, soft—that is, short or medium. ö, as in move, two. ū as in tube. u, as in tub: similar to ė and also to a. u, as in bull. ü, as in Sc. abune = Fr. û as in dû, Ger. ü long as in grün, Bühne. u, the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. but, Ger. Müller. oi, as in oil. ou, as in pound; or as au in Ger. Haus. CONSONANTS Of the consonants, b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, sh, t, v, z, always have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter c is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, s or k being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require explanation are the following:— ch is always as in rich. d, nearly as th in this = Sp. d in Madrid, &c. g is always hard, as in go. h represents the guttural in Scotch loch, Ger. nach, also other similar gutturals. n, Fr. nasal n as in bon. ˙ ¨ ¨ ˙ Aardwolf Aardwolf (Protĕles cristātus) r represents both English r, and r in foreign words, which is generally much more strongly trilled. s, always as in so. th, as th in thin. th, as th in this. w always consonantal, as in we. x = ks, which are used instead. y always consonantal, as in yea (Fr. ligne would be re-written lēny). zh, as s in pleasure = Fr. j. THE NEW GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME I A, the first letter in many alphabets. The sound most commonly belonging to it, as in French, Italian, German, &c., is that which is heard in father, pronounced short or long. In English the letter is made to represent at least seven sounds, as in father, mat, mate, mare, many, ball, what, besides being used in such digraphs as ea in heat, oa in boat.—A, in music, is the sixth note in the diatonic scale of C, and stands when in perfect tune to the latter note in the ratio of 3/5 to 1. The second string of the violin is tuned to this note. A 1, a symbol attached to vessels of the highest class in Lloyd's register of shipping, A referring to the hull of the vessel, 1 to the rigging and whole equipment. When A 1 has a number prefixed, as 100 A 1, 90 A 1, the number denotes that the vessel is built according to certain specifications. See Shipbuilding. Aa (ä) (Old Ger. aha, water; allied to Lat. aqua, water), the name of a great many streams of Central and Northern Europe. Aachen (ä′hėn). See Aix-la-Chapelle. Aaland Islands. See Aland Islands. Aalborg (ōl′borh: 'eel-town'), a seaport of Denmark, in Jutland, on the Liimfiord, see of a bishop, with iron-founding, distilling, fishing, &c. Pop. 33,449. Aalen (ä′lėn), a town of Germany in Württemberg, which manufactures woollen and linen goods. It has important iron- works and tanneries. Pop. 11,347. Aalesund (ō′le-sund), seaport and fishing centre on the west coast of Norway, on a small island. Pop. 13,858. Aali Pasha. See Ali Pasha. Aalst (älst). See Alost. Aar, or Aare (är), the name of several European rivers, of which the chief (180 miles long) is a tributary of the Rhine, next to it and the Rhone the longest river in Switzerland. It has its origin from the Upper and Lower Glaciers of the Aar, in the Bernese Alps, traverses Lakes Brienz and Thun, and receives the Saane, Reuss, Limmat, &c. On it are Interlaken, Thun, Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau, to which, as to the canton of Aargau, it gives its name. Aarau (ä′rou), a well-built and finely-situated town in Switzerland, capital of canton Aargau, on the River Aar. Pop. 9536. Aard-vark (ärd′vark: earth-pig), Dutch name for a burrowing insect-eating animal of South Africa, Orycterŏpus capensis, order Edentata, resembling the ant-eater and armadillo. It is called also ground-hog and Cape pig. Aardwolf (ärd′wulf: earth-wolf) (Protĕles cristātus), a burrowing carnivore of S. and E. Africa, allied to the hyenas and civets. It feeds on carrion, small mammals, insects, &c. Aare. See Aar. Aargau (är′gou), or Argovie (ar-go-vē), a northern canton of Switzerland; area, 543 sq. miles; hilly, well wooded, abundantly watered by the Aar and its tributaries, and well cultivated. Pop. 236,860. German is almost universally ˙ [1] ¨ ˙ ¨ ˙ [2] Abacus in architecture Norman Capital—a, the Abacus spoken. Capital, Aarau. Aarhuus (ōr′hös), a seaport and ancient town of Denmark, on the east coast of Jutland. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a good harbour, and manufactures woollens, gloves, hats, tobacco, &c. Pop. 65,858. Aaron (ā′ron), of the tribe of Levi, brother of Moses. At Sinai, when the people became impatient at the long- continued absence of Moses, he complied with their request by making a golden calf, and thus became involved with them in the guilt of gross idolatry. The office of high-priest, which he first filled, was made hereditary in his family. He died at Mount Hor at the age of 123, and was succeeded by his son Eleazer. Aaron's Beard. See Saint John's Wort and Toad-flax. Aaron's Rod. See Golden-rod and Mullein. Aasen (ō′zen), Ivar Andreas, Norwegian poet and philologist, was born in 1813 and died in 1896. He wrote miscellaneous poems and a drama, but he is chiefly known as the originator of the patriotic movement known as the Maulstroev. He endeavoured to give Norway a literary language distinct from the Danish, which has long served as the literary and official language of the country. This he attempted to do mainly by the help of the native dialects, which he studied thoroughly, setting forth their grammar in special works and embodying their vocabulary in his Norsk Ordbog med Dansk Forklaring (Norse Dictionary, with Explanations in Danish, 1873), supplemented by the Norsk Ordbog of Hans Ross (1890-2). Numbers of poems, tales, &c., have been written in the language, of which Aasen was in a sense the inventor. Aasvär (ōs′vār), a group of small islands off the Norwegian coast, under the Arctic Circle, where there is an important herring-fishery. Ab, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil, the fifth of the ecclesiastical, year—part of July and part of August. Ababda, or Ababdeh (abab′de) (Gebadei of Pliny), a nomadic African race inhabiting Upper Egypt and part of Nubia, between the Nile and the Red Sea, dark-brown in colour. Their language is Arabic and they are Mahommedans in religion. They number about 40,000. Ab′aca, or Manilla Hemp, a strong fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of a kind of plantain (Musa textĭlis) which grows in the Indian Archipelago, and is cultivated in the Philippines. The outer fibres of the leaf-stalks are made into strong and durable ropes, the inner into various fine fabrics. Ab′aco, Great and Little, two islands of the Bahamas group, (q.v.). Pop. about 4000. Abacus for Calculations Abacus for Calculations Ab′acus, a Latin term applied to an apparatus used in elementary schools for facilitating arithmetical operations, consisting of a number of parallel cords or wires, upon which balls or beads are strung, the uppermost wire being appropriated to units, the next to tens, &c.— The uppermost member or division of the capital of a column, immediately under the architrave. Abad′don (Heb. destruction), the name given in Rev. ix. 11 as that of the angel of the bottomless pit, otherwise called Apollyon. In Job, xxvi, 6, it designates the underworld, or Hades. Abakansk′, a fortified place in Siberia, near the Upper Yenisei, founded by Peter the Great in 1707. Abalone (ab-a-lō′ne), a name in California for a species of ear-shell (Haliotis) that furnishes mother-of-pearl. Ab′ana, or Amanah, one of the two rivers of Damascus mentioned in the Bible (2 Kings, v, 12). See Barada. Aban′donment, a term of marine insurance, employed to designate the case where the party insured gives up his whole interest in the property to the insurer, and claims as for a total loss.—Bibliography: G. G. Phillimore, Marine Insurance, in Encyclopedia of the Laws of England, vol. viii; C. R. Tyser, Law relating to Losses under a Policy of Marine Insurance. Ab′ano, a village of North Italy, 5 miles from Padua, famous for its mud-baths and warm springs. It is supposed to be the birthplace of Livy. Aba′rim, a mountain range of Eastern Palestine, including Nebo, on which Moses died. Abatement, in law, has various significations. Abatement of nuisances is the remedy allowed to a person injured by a public or private nuisance, of destroying or removing it himself. A plea in abatement is brought forward by a defendant when he wishes to defeat or quash a particular action on some formal or technical ground. Abatement, in mercantile law, is an allowance, deduction, or discount made for prompt payment or other reason. Ab′attis, or Abatis, in field engineering, a mass of trees cut down and laid with their branches turned towards the [2] [3] enemy in such a way as to form a defence for troops stationed behind them. Abattoir (ab-at-wär′). See Slaughter-house. Abauzit, Firmin (a-bō-zē), a French Protestant scholar, was born in 1679 and died in 1767. He lived chiefly at Geneva, but visited England and was highly esteemed by Newton, who considered him not unfit to be judge between himself and Leibnitz in the quarrel as to the invention of the integral and differential calculus. Collections of his works were published at Geneva (1770) and at London (1773). Abba, a Syrian word equivalent to 'father', which, being applied in the Eastern Church to monks, superiors of monks, and other ecclesiastics, gave rise to the word abbot. In the Syriac and Coptic Churches it is given to bishops. Abbadie (ab-a-dē), Antoine Thomson and Arnaud Michel d', French travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and 1815 respectively. They lived for years in Abyssinia, and published valuable works on that country: Arnaud, Douze Ans dans la Haute-Éthiopie; Antoine, Géodésie de la Haute-Éthiopie, &c. Arnaud died in 1893, Antoine in 1897. Abbas I, the Great, Shah or King of Persia, born in 1557, ascended the throne in 1586, at a time when the Turks and hordes of Usbek Tartars had made great encroachments on the country. Having defeated the Usbeks, recovered the provinces overrun by them, and reduced a great part of Afghanistan, he made war against the Turks, and in 1605 defeated them near Bussorah, thus getting back all the lost provinces. He extended his rule beyond Persia proper, and at his death in 1628 his dominions stretched from the Tigris to the Indus. He is looked upon by the Persians as their greatest sovereign. Abbas II, Hilmi, ex-Khedive of Egypt, was born in 1874. He is the eldest son of Tewfik Pasha, and succeeded his father in 1892. During his reign he adopted an unfriendly attitude towards England, but he failed in his attempt to form an anti-British Cabinet in 1893. On 19th Dec., 1914, the British Government issued a proclamation deposing Abbas Hilmi and conferring the title of Sultan of Egypt upon Hussein Kamil, eldest living prince of the family of Mohammed Ali-Hussein Kamil, who died in 1917. See Egypt. Abbas Mirza, a Persian prince and soldier, was the son of the shah Feth Ali; born 1783, died 1833; he greatly distinguished himself in the wars against Russia. Abbasids, or Abbassides (ab′as-sidz), the name of the second Arabian dynasty which supplanted the Ommiades. It traced its descent from Abbas (born 566, died 652), uncle of Mahomet, and gave thirty-seven caliphs to Bagdad between 749 and 1258. Harun al Rashid was a member of this dynasty. See Caliphs. Abbate (ab-bä′tā), the Italian term corresponding to Abbé. Abbé (ab-ā), a French word for abbot, or for anyone regularly wearing the clerical dress. Before the Revolution, all who had studied theology, either with the view of becoming ordained clergymen or merely of obtaining some ecclesiastical appointment or benefice, were generally so designated. Marked out by their special dress, a short, violet- coloured robe, they were seen everywhere—at court, the ball, the theatre, and in private families, where they acted sometimes as tutors and sometimes as confidential advisers. Others, again, adopted the literary profession or became teachers in the higher educational establishments. Abbe, Cleveland, American meteorologist and astronomer, born at New York in 1838, and educated at Harvard. He held various positions in connection with observatories and other institutions in America, and was for some time chief meteorologist in the United States Weather Bureau. He wrote much on meteorology and kindred subjects. He died in 1916. His works include: The Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere; Relations between Climates and Crops, &c. Abbeoku′ta, a town of West Africa, in the Lagos Province of S. Nigeria, on the Ogun River, and on the railway from Lagos to N. Nigeria, 45 miles north of Lagos, consists chiefly of mud houses, surrounded by a mud wall. Pop. 50,000 to 100,000. Ab′bess. See Abbey and Abbot. Abbeville (ancient Abbatis Villa), a town of France, department of the Somme, on the River Somme (which is here tidal), 108 miles N.N.W. of Paris. The town is first mentioned in the ninth century, when it belonged to the Abbey of St. Riquier. It has a Gothic church (St. Vulfran) (begun in the fifteenth century and completed in the seventeenth), which has a magnificent west front in the Flamboyant style. It manufactures woollens, sail-cloth, chemicals, &c. Pop. 20,373. Ab′bey, a monastery or religious community of the highest class, governed by an abbot, assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, and other subordinate functionaries; or, in the case of a female community, superintended by an abbess. An abbey invariably included a church. A priory differed from an abbey only in being scarcely so extensive an establishment, and was governed by a prior. In the English conventual cathedral establishments, as Canterbury, Norwich, Ely, &c., the archbishops or bishops held the abbot's place, the immediate governor of the monastery being called a prior. Some priories sprang originally from the more important abbeys, and remained under the jurisdiction of the abbots; but subsequently any real distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. The greater abbeys formed most complete and extensive establishments, including not only the church and other buildings devoted to the monastic life and its daily requirements, such as the refectory or eating-room, the dormitories or sleeping-rooms, the room for social intercourse, the school for novices, the scribes' cells, library, &c., but also workshops, storehouses, mills, cattle ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ [4] and poultry sheds, dwellings for artisans, labourers, and other servants, infirmary, guest-house, &c. Among the most famous abbeys on the continent of Europe were those of Cluny, Clairvaux, and Citeaux in France; St. Galle in Switzerland, and Fulda in Germany; the most noteworthy English abbeys were those of Westminster, St. Mary's of York, Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, Rievaulx, Netley; and of Scotland, Melrose, Paisley, and Arbroath. Plan of Fountains Abbey Plan of Fountains Abbey Abbiategrasso (ab-bē-ä′tā-gras-sō), a town in the north of Italy, 15 miles W.S.W. of Milan. Pop. 13,148. Ab′bot (from the Syriac abba, father), the head of an abbey (see Abbey), the lady of similar rank being called abbess (abbatissa). An abbess, however, was not, like the abbot, allowed to exercise the spiritual functions of the priesthood, such as preaching, confessing, &c.; nor did abbesses ever succeed in freeing themselves from the control of their diocesan bishop. In the early age of monastic institutions (circ. A.D. 300-600) the monks were not priests, but simply laymen who retired from the world to live in common, and the abbot was also a layman. In the course of time the abbots were usually ordained, and when an abbey was directly attached to a cathedral the bishop was also the abbot, but the functions devolving on the head of a monastery were, in this case, performed by a prior. At first the abbeys were more remarkable for their numbers than for their magnitude, but afterwards many of them were large and richly endowed, and the heads of such establishments became personages of no small influence and power, more especially after the abbots succeeded (by the eleventh century) in freeing themselves from the jurisdiction of the bishop of their diocese. Hence families of the highest rank might be seen eagerly striving to obtain the titles of abbot and abbess for their members. The great object was to obtain control over the revenues of the abbeys, and for this purpose recourse was had to the device of holding them under a kind of trust, or, as it was called, in commendam. According to the original idea, the abbot in commendam, or 'commendator', was merely a temporary trustee, who drew the whole or part of the revenues during a vacancy, and was bound to apply them to specific purposes; but ultimately the commendator or lay abbot in many instances held the appointment for life, and was allowed to apply the whole or a large portion of the revenues to his own private use. Many of the abbots vied with the bishops and nobility in rank and dignity. In England abbots long sat in the House of Lords, ranking next after barons. Seventeen of them were present on 28th June, 1539, the last occasion when the abbots as a body sat in Parliament. The Reformation introduced vast changes, not only in Protestant countries, where abbeys and all other monastic establishments were generally suppressed, but even in countries which still continued Roman Catholic; many sovereigns, whilst displaying their zeal for the Roman Catholic Church by persecuting its opponents, did not scruple to imitate them in the confiscation of Church property. Abbot (or Lord) of Misrule, the personage who took the chief part in the Christmas revelries of the English populace before the Reformation. In Scotland he was called Abbot of Unreason. Abbot, George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1562 and died in 1633. He studied at Oxford, assisted in the translation of the Bible, was made Bishop of Lichfield in 1609, next year Bishop of London, and in 1611 Archbishop of Canterbury. He retained the favour of James I to the last, but after the accession of Charles I his influence at Court was superseded by that of Laud. He published several works, chiefly theological, and A Brief Description of the Whole World (1599). Ab′botsford, the country-seat of Sir Walter Scott, on the south bank of the Tweed, in Roxburghshire, 3 miles from Melrose, in the midst of picturesque scenery, forming an extensive and irregular pile in the Scottish baronial style of architecture.—Abbotsford Club, a club established at Edinburgh for printing works throwing light on matters of history or literature connected with the writings of Sir Walter Scott; issued 34 vols. 1835-64. Ab′bott, Rev. Edwin, D.D., prolific writer on theological, educational, and other subjects, born in London, 1838, was educated at the City of London School and St. John's College, Cambridge, where he highly distinguished himself; he was head master of the City of London School from 1865 to 1889, when he retired. His Shakespearian Grammar (1870) is one of his best contributions to English philology. Among his theological and kindred writings are: Through Nature to Christ; Bible Lessons; Cambridge Sermons; Oxford Sermons; the elaborate article Gospels in the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th edition); From Letter to Spirit. Other works are: Philochristus and Onesimus, both romances on the history of the Early Christian Church; Francis Bacon, an Account of his Life and Works; St. Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles; The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman (a very depreciatory estimate); Flatland, a Romance of Many Dimensions. He also wrote: Johannine Grammar (1906), The Message of the Son of Man (1909), The Fourfold Gospel (1913-7). Ab′bott, Jacob, a popular American writer, especially of entertaining and instructive books for the young. He was born in 1803 and died in 1879. For a time he was a teacher and later a clergyman. Ab′bott, Thomas Kingsmill, D.D., biblical scholar and writer on philosophic and other subjects, born at Dublin, 1829, died 18th Dec., 1913. He studied with distinction at Trinity College, and was successively professor in Dublin University of moral philosophy, 1867-72; of biblical Greek, 1875-88; and of Hebrew, 1879-1900; he was at one time librarian of the College. He has written Sight and Touch, directed against the Berkeleian theory of vision; Elements of Logic; Essays, chiefly on the Original Texts of the Old and New Testaments; Notes on some Epistles of St. Paul; Elementary Theory of the Tides; Translation of Kant's Theory of Ethics; Kant's Introduction to Logic; ˙ ˙ [5] Commentary on Ephesians and Colossians; &c. Abbrevia′tions, devices used in writing and printing to save time and space, consisting usually of curtailments effected in words and syllables by the removal of some letters, often of the whole of the letters except the first. The following is a list of the more important:— A.B., artium baccalaureus, bachelor of arts (more commonly B.A.); also, able-bodied seaman. Abp., archbishop. A.C., ante Christum, before Christ. Ac., acre. Acc., A/c, or Acct., account. A.D., anno Domini, in the year of our Lord: used also as if equivalent to 'after Christ', or 'of the Christian era'. A.D.C., aide-de- camp. Ad lib., ad libitum, at pleasure. A.D.O.S., assistant director of ordnance stores. A.D.V.S., assistant director of veterinary services. Æt. or Ætat. ætatis (anno), in the year of his age. A.G., attorney-general, adjutant-general. A.H., anno Hegiræ, in the year of the Hegira. A.I.A., associate of the Institute of Actuaries. A.Inst.C.E., associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A.I.Mech.E., associate of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers. A.M., ante meridiem, forenoon; anno mundi, in the year of the world; artium magister, master of arts. A.M.I.E.E., associate member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. A.M.I.Mech.E., associate member of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers. A.M.Inst.C.E., associate member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Anon., anonymous. A.P.D., army pay department. A.R.A., associate of Royal Academy (London). A.R.A.M., associate of the Royal Academy of Music. A.R.C.O., associate of the Royal College of Organists. A.R.I.B.A., associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects. A.R.S.A., associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. A.U.C., ab urbe condita, from the building of Rome (753 B.C.). A.V., authorized version; artillery volunteers. B.A., bachelor of arts. Bart, or Bt., baronet. B.C., before Christ. B.C.L., bachelor of civil law. B.D., bachelor of divinity. B.L., bachelor of law. B.M., bachelor of medicine. Bp., bishop. B.S., bachelor of surgery. B.Sc., bachelor of science. B.V.M., blessed Virgin Mary. C., cap., or chap., chapter. C.A., chartered accountant. Cantab., Cantabrigiensis, of Cambridge. Cantuar., Cantuariensis, of Canterbury. C.B., companion of the Bath. C.B.E., commander of the British Empire. C.C., Catholic curate; county councillor. C.D.V., carte de visite. C.E., civil engineer. Cf., confer, compare. Ch.B., chirurgiæ baccalaureus, bachelor of surgery. C.I., order of the Crown of India. C.I.E., companion of the order of the Indian Empire. C.J., chief justice. C.M., chirurgiæ magister, master in surgery; common metre. C.M.G., companion of the order of St. Michael and St. George. C.M.S., Church Missionary Society. Co., company or county. C.O.D., cash on delivery. Col., colonel, colony. Coll., college. Cr., creditor. C.S., civil service; clerk to the signet. C.S.I., companion of the Star of India. C.T.C., Cyclists' Touring Club. Curt., current, the present month. C.V.O., commander of the Royal Victorian Order. Cwt., hundredweight. d., denarius, penny or pence. D.C.L., doctor of civil law. D.C.M., Distinguished Conduct Medal. D.D., doctor of divinity. Del., delineavit, drew it. D.F., defender of the faith. D.G., Dei gratia, by the grace of God. D.L., deputy lieutenant. D.Lit., D.Litt., doctor litterarum, doctor of letters or literature. Do., ditto, the same. D.O.M., Deo Optimo Maximo, to God, the best and greatest. D.P.H., diploma in public health. D.Phil., doctor of philosophy. Dr., doctor, also debtor. D.Sc., doctor of science. D.S.O., Distinguished Service Order. D.V., Deo volente, God willing. Dwt., pennyweight. E., east. Ebor., Eboracensis, of York. E.C., Established Church. E.C.U., English Church Union. E.E., errors excepted. e.g., exempli gratia, for example. Etc. or &c., et cetera, and the rest. F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit's thermometer. F.A., Football Association. F.A.S., fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F.B.A., fellow of the British Academy. F.C., Free Church. F.C.P., fellow of the College of Preceptors. F.C.S., fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D., fidei defensor, defender of the faith. Fec., fecit, he made or did it. F.F.A., fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries. F.F.P.S., fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow). F.G.S., fellow of the Geological Society. F.H.S., fellow of the Horticultural Society. F.I.A., fellow of the Institute of Actuaries. Fl., flourished. F.L.S., fellow of the Linnæan Society. F.M., field-marshal. F.O.B., free on board (goods delivered). F.R.A.S., fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. F.R.C.O., fellow of the Royal College of Organists. F.R.C.P., fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F.R.C.S., fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. F.R.G.S., fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. F.R.I.B.A., fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects. F.R.S., fellow of the Royal Society. F.R.S.E., fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. F.S.A., fellow of the Society of Arts or Antiquaries. F.S.S., fellow of the Statistical Society. Ft., foot or feet. F.Z.S., fellow of the Zoological Society. Gal., gallon. G.B.E., (knight) grand cross of the British Empire. G.C.B., (knight) grand cross of the Bath. G.C.I.E., (knight) grand commander of the Indian Empire. G.C.M.G., (knight) grand cross of St. Michael and St. George. G.C.S.I., (knight) grand commander of the Star of India. G.C.V.O., (knight) grand cross of the Royal Victorian Order. G.R., Georgius Rex, King George. G.R.I., Georgius Rex Imperator; George, King and Emperor. G.P.O., general post office. H.B.M., his or her Britannic majesty. H.E.I.C.S., honourable East India Company's service. Hhd., hogshead. H.I.H., his or her imperial highness. H.M.I.S., his majesty's inspector of schools. H.M.S., his or her majesty's ship. Hon., honourable. H.Q., Head-quarters. H.R.H., his (her) royal highness. H.S.H., his (her) serene highness. [6] Ib. or Ibid., ibīdem, in the same place. Id., idem, the same. i.e., id est, that is. +I.H.S., Jesus hominum salvator, Jesus the Saviour of men: originally it was ΙΗΣ, the first three letters of ΙΗΣΟΥΣ (Iēsous), Greek for Jesus. Incog., incognito, unknown. Inf., infra, below. I.N.R.I., Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudæorum, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inst., instant, or of this month; institute. Inv., invenit, designed, invented. I.O.G.T., Independent Order of Good Templars. I.O.U., I owe you. I.S.O., Imperial Service Order. J.P., justice of the peace. Jr., junior. J.U.D., juris utriusque doctor, doctor both of the civil and the canon law. K.B.E., knight commander of the British Empire. K.C., king's counsel. K.C.B., knight commander of the Bath. K.C.M.G., knight commander of St. Michael and St. George. K.C.I.E., knight commander of the Indian Empire. K.C.S.I., knight commander of the Star of India. K.C.V.O., knight commander of the Royal Victorian Order. K.G., knight of the Garter. K.P., knight of St. Patrick. K.T., knight of the Thistle. Kt. or Knt., knight. L., l, or £, pounds sterling. L.A., literate in arts. L.A.S., licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. Lat., latitude; Latin. Lb. or lb., libra, a pound (weight). L.C., loco citato, in the place cited. L.C.J., lord chief-justice. L.C.P., licentiate of the College of Preceptors. Ldp., lordship. L.D.S., licentiate in dental surgery. Litt.D., litterarum doctor, doctor of literature. L.L., Low Latin. L.L.A., lady literate in arts. LL.B., legum baccalaureus, bachelor of laws. LL.D., legum doctor, doctor of laws (that is, the civil and the canon law). LL.M., legum magister, master of laws. Lon. or long., longitude. Loq., loquitur, speaks. L.R.C.P., licentiate Royal College of Physicians (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.S., licentiate Royal College of Surgeons (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.V.S., licentiate of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. L.S., locus sigilli, the place of the seal (on documents). L.S.A., licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries. L.S.D., libræ, solidi, denarii, pounds, shillings, pence. M.A., master of arts. M.B., medicinæ baccalaureus, bachelor of medicine. M.B.E., member of the British Empire. M.D., medicinæ doctor, doctor of medicine. M.E., mining engineer. Messrs., messieurs, gentlemen. M.F.H., master of fox-hounds. M.Inst.C.E., member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. M.I.E.E., member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. M.I.M.E., member of the Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. M.I.Mech.E., member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Mlle., mademoiselle. Mme., madame. M.P., member of Parliament. M.R.C.S., member of the Royal College of Surgeons. M.R.C.V.S., member of the Royal College of Veterinary surgeons. M.R.I.A., member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS., manuscript; MSS., manuscripts. Mus.D., musicæ doctor, doctor of music. M.V.O., member of the Royal Victorian Order. N., north. N.B., nota bene, take notice; also North Britain, New Brunswick. N.D., no date. Nem. con., nemine contradicente, no one contradicting, unanimously. No., numero, number. N.P., notary public. N.S., new style, Nova Scotia. N.S.W., New South Wales. N.T., New Testament. N.Y., New York. N.Z., New Zealand. Ob., obiit, died. O.B.E., officer of the British Empire. Obs., obsolete. Obt., obedient. O.C., officer commanding. O.H.M.S., on his majesty's service. O.M., Order of Merit. O.P., out of print. Op. cit., opere citato, in the work quoted. O.S., old style. O.T., Old Testament. Oxon., Oxoniensis, of Oxford. Oz., ounce or ounces. P., page; pp., pages. Par., paragraph. P.C., privy-councillor. P.E., Protestant Episcopal. Per cent., per centum, by the hundred. Ph.D., philosophiæ doctor, doctor of philosophy. Pinx., pinxit, painted (it). P.M., post meridiem, afternoon. P.O., post office. P.O.O., post office order. P.P., parish priest. P.P.C., pour prendre congé, to take leave. Prox., proximo (mense), next month. P.R.A., president of the Royal Academy. P.R.S.A., president of the Royal Scottish Academy. P.S., postscript. P.T.O., please turn over (the leaf). Q., question, queen. Q.E.D., quod erat demonstrandum, which was to be demonstrated. Q.E.F., quod erat faciendum, which was to be done. Q.M., quarter-master. Q.M.G., quarter-master-general. Qu., query. Quant. suff., quantum sufficit, as much as is needful. Q.V., quod vide, which see. R., rex, regina, king, queen. R.A., royal academician; Royal Artillery. R.A.M., Royal Academy of Music. R.A.M.C., Royal Army Medical Corps. R.A.O.D., Royal Army Ordnance Department. R.A.S.C., Royal Army Service Corps. R.C., Roman Catholic. R.C.P., Royal College of Physicians. R.C.S., Royal College of Surgeons. R.E., Royal Engineers. Rev., reverend. R.I.P., requiescat in pace, may he rest in peace. R.M., Royal Marines. R.N., Royal Navy. R.S.A., royal Scottish academician. R.S.E., Royal Society of Edinburgh. R.S.L., Royal Society of Literature. R.S.V.P., répondez s'il vous plaît, reply, if you please. Rt. Hon., right honourable. Rt. Wpful., right worshipful. R.V., revised version. S., south. S. or St., saint. Sc., scilicet, namely, viz. S.J., Society of Jesus (Jesuits). S.P.C.A., Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. S.P.C.C., Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. S.P.C.K., Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. S.P.G., Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. S.P.Q.R., senatus populusque Romanus, the senate and people of Rome. S.S.C., solicitor before the supreme courts. S.S.M., Society of the Sacred Mission. St., saint, street. S.T.D., sacræ theologiæ doctor, doctor of divinity. S.T.P., sacræ theologiæ professor, an old-fashioned equivalent of D.D. T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. T.O., telegraph office. Abdominal Regions. U.F.C., United Free Church. U.K., United Kingdom. Ult., ultimo, last (month). U.P., United Presbyterian. U.S., United States. U.S.A., United States of America. U.S.N., United States Navy. V., vide, see; also versus, against. V.C., Victoria Cross. Viz., videlicet, to wit, or namely. V.P., vice-president. V.S., veterinary surgeon. W., west. W.I., West Indies. W.L.F., Women's Liberal Federation. W.O., War Office. W.S.P.U., Women's Social and Political Union. W.S. writer to the signet (Scotland). Xmas, Christmas. Y.M.C.A., Young Men's Christian Association. Y.W.C.A., Young Women's Christian Association. In LL.D., LL.B., &c., the letter is doubled, according to the Roman system, to show that the abbreviation represents a plural noun. Abd-el-Ka′der, an Arab chief, born in Algeria, 1807; died at Damascus, 1883. He was the chief opponent of the French in their conquest of Algeria, but at last surrendered to them in 1847, and was imprisoned till set at liberty by Napoleon III in 1852. He afterwards resided chiefly at Damascus, but made various journeys, and visited the Paris exhibition of 1867. He wrote a religious philosophical work in Arabic which has been translated into French. Abde′ra, an ancient Greek city on the Thracian coast, the birthplace of Democritus (the laughing philosopher), Anaxarchus, and Protagoras. Its inhabitants were proverbial for stupidity. Abdica′tion, properly the voluntary, but sometimes also the involuntary, resignation of an office or dignity, and more especially that of sovereign power. Abdication does not necessarily require the execution of a formal deed, but may be presumed from facts and circumstances, as in the case of the English Revolution in 1688, when, after long debate, it was resolved by both Houses of Parliament that King James II, having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, had "abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant". Yet the sovereign of Great Britain cannot constitutionally abdicate without the consent of both Houses of Parliament. The principal abdications in recent years were: Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, 14th March, 1917; King Constantine of Greece, 11th June, 1917; King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 6th Oct., 1918; Wilhelm II of Germany, 9th Nov., 1918; Karl I of Austria, 13th Nov., 1918; and Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess of Luxembourg, 15th Jan., 1919. Abdo′men, in man, the belly, or lower cavity of the trunk, separated from the upper cavity or thorax by the diaphragm or midriff, and bounded below by the bones of the pelvis. It contains the viscera belonging to the digestive and urinary systems. What are called the abdominal regions will be understood from the accompanying cut, in which 1 is the epigastric region, 2 the umbilical, 3 the pubic, 4 4 the right and left hypochondriac, 5 5 the right and left lumbar, 6 6 right and left iliac. The name is given to the corresponding portion of the body in other animals. In insects it comprises the whole body behind the thorax, usually consisting of a series of rings. See Alimentary Canal. Abdom′inal Fishes (Abdomināles), a group of the soft-finned (or malacopterous) fishes, having fins upon the abdomen, and comprising the herring, pike, salmon, carp, &c. Abduc′tion, a legal term, generally applied to denote the offence of carrying off a female either forcibly or by fraudulent representations. Such a delinquency in regard to a man is styled kidnapping. There are various descriptions of abduction recognized in criminal jurisprudence, such as that of a child, of an heiress, or of a wife. Ab′dul-Az′iz, Sultan of Turkey, was born in Feb., 1830, and succeeded his brother Abdul-Mejid, in June, 1861. He concluded treaties of commerce with France and England, both of which countries he visited in 1867. Deposed in May, 1876, he committed suicide, or more probably was assassinated, in June of the same year. He was succeeded by his son Murad V. See next article. Ab′dul-Ham′id, Sultan of Turkey, younger son of Abdul-Mejid, born 22nd Sept., 1842, succeeded his brother Murad V, who was deposed on proof of his insanity in 1876. At that time Turkey, which was at war with Serbia, was compelled to agree to an armistice at the demand of Russia. The persecution and oppression of the Christian population of Bulgaria had roused remonstrances from other European countries, and a congress met at Constantinople to consider a constitution which the Porte had proclaimed. The conference was a failure, and in April, 1877, war was declared by Russia. During the sanguinary struggle which ensued the Turks fought with great bravery, but they had ultimately to sue for peace. A treaty was signed at San Stefano in Feb., 1878, but its provisions were modified by a congress of the Great Powers which met at Berlin. The island of Cyprus was ceded to Britain. Serbia, Rumania, and Montenegro were freed from Turkish suzerainty altogether; Bulgaria was left in nominal dependence; whilst Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian administration. In 1881 Thessaly was transferred to Greece; in 1885 E. Roumelia became united to Bulgaria. Ever since the treaty of Berlin, Abdul Hamid saw in Germany the future friend of Turkey. He therefore entrusted Germans with the reorganization of his army and finances. Subsequently there were massacres of Christians, a war with Greece (1897), and troubles in Crete and Macedonia. In April, 1909, the Sultan was deposed, and his brother, Rashid Effendi, proclaimed sultan as Mohammed V. Abdul Hamid died in captivity 10th Feb., 1918. Abd-ul-Lat′if, an Arab writer and physician, was born at Bagdad in 1161 and died there in 1231. He was patronized by the celebrated Saladin, and published an excellent description of Egypt, which is still extant. It was translated into English by White, Oxford, 1800. [7] Ab′dul-Mej′id Khan, Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823, succeeded his father, Mahmud II, 1st July, 1839. At the time of his accession Mehemet, Pasha of Egypt, had risen a second time against the Turkish yoke; his son Ibrahim had inflicted a severe defeat on the Turks at Nizib (24th June, 1839), and was advancing on Constantinople. But the intervention of the leading European Powers checked the designs of Mehemet Ali, and saved the Turkish empire. Abdul-Mejid was desirous of carrying out reforms, but most of them were not enforced, or caused bloody insurrections where attempts were made to carry them out. Owing to disputes between the Latin and Greek Churches regarding the rights of precedence and possession of the 'holy places' in Palestine, and to demands made by the Tsar virtually implying the right of protectorate over the Christian subjects of the Sultan, war broke out between Turkey and Russia in 1853. In the following year the Porte effected an alliance with France and England (hence the Crimean War), and later on with Sardinia. (See Crimean War.) Abdul-Mejid died 25th June, 1861, and was succeeded by his brother, Abdul-Aziz. Abeceda′rian, a term formed from the first four letters of the alphabet, and applied to the followers of Storch, a German Anabaptist (1522), because they rejected all worldly knowledge, even the learning of the alphabet. À Becket, Thomas. See Becket. À Beck′ett, Gilbert Abbott, English writer, born near London in 1811. He studied for the bar, and became one of the original staff of Punch, was long a leader-writer to the Times and the Morning Herald, and contributed articles to the Illustrated London News. He wrote Comic History of England, Comic History of Rome, and Comic Blackstone, and between fifty and sixty plays. In 1849 he was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate, which office he retained till his death in 1856. Abel, properly Hebel (Heb. breath, vapour, vanity), the second son of Adam. He was a shepherd, and was slain by his brother Cain from jealousy because his sacrifice was accepted while Cain's was rejected. Several of the fathers, among others St. Chrysostom and Augustine, regard him as a type of the new, regenerate man. Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus, chemist, was born in London, 1827; died 1902. Having adopted chemistry as a profession, he studied under Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry, became professor of chemistry at the Royal Military Academy in 1851, and was chemist to the War Department and chemical adviser to the Government from 1854 to 1888. He did useful work in connection with the chemistry of explosives (especially gun-cotton), the flash-point of petroleum, &c.; was joint-inventor of cordite along with Dewar; and was also an authority on the manufacture of steel. He was honoured with a baronetcy, and was also a K.C.B. and a K.C.V.O. He wrote works on gunpowder, gun-cotton, and explosives generally, and on electricity as applied to explosive purposes. His works include: The Modern History of Gunpowder; Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes, &c. Abélard (ab′e-lärd), or Abailard, Peter, a celebrated scholastic teacher, born near Nantes, in Brittany, in 1079. He made extraordinary progress with his studies, and, ultimately eclipsing his teachers, he opened a school of scholastic philosophy near Paris, which attracted crowds of students from the neighbouring city. His success in the fiery debates which were then the fashion in the schools made him many enemies, among whom was Guillaume de Champeaux, his former teacher, chief of the cathedral school of Notre-Dame, and the most advanced of the Realists. Abélard succeeded his adversary in this school (in 1113), and under him were trained many men who afterwards rose to eminence, among them being the future Pope Celestin II, Peter Lombard, and Arnold of Brescia. While he was at the height of his popularity, and in his fortieth year, he fell violently in love with Heloise—then eighteen years of age—niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris. They obtained a home in Fulbert's house under the pretext of teaching Heloise philosophy, and their intercourse at length became apparent. Abélard, who had retired to Brittany, was followed by Heloise, who there gave birth to a son, named Astrolabius. A private marriage took place, and Heloise returned to her uncle's house, but, refusing to make public her marriage (as likely to spoil Abélard's career), she was subjected to severe treatment at the hands of her uncle. To save her from this Abélard carried her off and placed her in a convent at Argenteuil, a proceeding which so incensed Fulbert that he hired ruffians who broke into Abélard's chamber and subjected him to a shameful mutilation. Abélard, filled with grief and shame, became a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise took the veil. When time had somewhat moderated his grief, he resumed his lectures; but trouble after trouble overtook him. His theological writings were condemned by the Council of Soissons, and he retired to an oratory called the Paraclete, subsequently becoming head of the abbey of St. Gildas-de-Rhuys in Brittany. For a short time he again lectured at Paris (1136), but his doctrines once more brought persecution on him, and St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the most powerful man in the Church in those days, had him condemned by the Council of Sens and afterwards by the Pope. Abélard did not long survive this, dying at St. Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saône, 21st April, 1142. Heloise, who had become abbess of the Paraclete, had him buried there, where she herself was afterwards laid by his side. Their ashes were removed to Paris in 1800, and in 1817 they were finally deposited beneath a mausoleum in the cemetery of Père la Chaise. According to John of Salisbury, Abélard is credited with the invention of a new philosophical system, midway between Realism and Nominalism. In Ethics, Abélard seems to have attached importance to the psychological element in the action, rather than to the action itself. "The intention of sinning", he maintained, "is worse than the actual physical sin." A complete edition of his works was published by Cousin (2 vols., Paris, 1849-59), and the letters of Abélard and Heloise have been often published in the original and in translations. Pope's Eloisa to Abélard is founded on them. Abélard's autobiography, entitled Story of my Calamities, is still extant.—Bibliography: Charles de Rémusat, Abélard (2 vols.); J. M‘Cabe, Life of Abélard. Abele (a-bēl′), a name of the white poplar. [8] [9] A′belite, or Abe′lian, a member of a religious sect in Africa which arose in the fourth century after Christ. They married, but lived in continence, after the manner, as they maintained, of Abel, and attempted to keep up the sect by adopting the children of others. Abelmoschus (-mos′kus), a genus of tropical plants of the mallow family. A. esculentus, cultivated in India, Algeria, &c., yields edible pods and also a valuable fibre....