THE MYTHOLOGY OF KINGSHIP IN NEO-ASSYRIAN ART MEHMET-ALI ATA<;: Bryn Mllwr College ~ CAMBRIDGE ~ UNIVERSITY PRESS CONTENTS CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Pauio, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Cambridge University Press 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA www.carnhridgc.org Information on this tide: www.cambridgc.org/97S05 2 , 5 I 7904 @ Mchmc[-Ali Atay 2010 List of flIustrations page vii "lhl5 publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptioll Acknowledgments xiii and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written List ofA bbreviations xv permission of Cambridge University Press. Prologue xvii First published '1.0 10 PART I: HUMAN AND ANIMAL ONTOLOGY IN THE NEO-ASSYRIAN Printed in rhe United SLates of America PALACE RELIEFS A caw/og record for this publicatioll iJ (I/J(/ilab/l'ji'Olli till' British U/;I"fll)'- Introduction ) Ashurnasirpal II 14 UlmllY OfCol/gn'Ss Cataloging in Publication drlf{/ lhe Anatomy of Death 1 5 Ala\" Mehmet-AIi, 1972- Librllion dnd Prostnuion 18 '(he mythology of kingship in Neo-Assyrian art I Mehmet-Ali Atao;:. River CmfSing: Human Bodies, lnjlttted Animrt/ Skins 20 p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. lhe Animal tiS lNbute 22 ISBN 978-0-521-5179°-4 (hbk.) lhe Uminrtlity o//he Tributary 28 J. Relief (Sculpture), AncielH - Assyria. 2. Kings and rulers in an. .1. Art and mythology. 4. Animals in an. Congenial Contrtcl with Animals )2 ). An, Assyro-Babylonian. 6. Palaces - Assyria. 7. Assyria - Anriquides. 8. Assyria - Kings and rulers. 9. Mytho1ot-,'y, Assyro·Babyloniall. I. Title. 2 Tiglath-Pileser III )9 NllRo.AS} 2010 lhe Anrltomy o/Hflule 40 7 }2'. 5-dc22 2009026766 Uminalily rmd Animal5'kins 42 On Camelbflck 44 ISBN 978-0-521-5179°-4 Hardhack 0lG/ttle find Men 45 Cambridge University Press has no responsibility CO!' the persistence or Proximil)~ O[Julrlp, fllfd Amtiogy in tht' Art o/l'iglflliJ-Pi/cJt'r f11 48 accuracy of llJ(L~ for external or third-parry Internct Web siLe~ referred to in ) Sargon II 50 this publication and does not guarantee that any COIHelH on such Web siteS is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. HUn! OJ' Sacrijz'ce? 51 Horse Leg or HUflJflll Leg? 53 Animflls mltl Gender 58 4 Sennacherib 61 Hody find Booty 62 The MllSsacres ofLflchish 6) lhe Cflrnivort, lind the Herbivore 66 Publication of this book has been aided by a gram from dlC Millard Mdss Publication hlJld of the College An Association. v vi CONTENTS Ashurbanipal The Hounds ofA shurbanipal LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Animal, Vegetable, Mineral Conclusion to Part I PART II: KINGSHIP AND PRIESTHOOD IN THE ART OF A$HVRNASIRPAL II Introduction The King, Nanking "La salle dire 'G')) 2 ) 1he Mixta Persona I I ) 4 The King and the "Sacred Tree" 125 5 The Encounter 1)0 Conclusion to Part II 144 I. Human-headed apkal!u holding a wild goat, Panel Z aI, Room T, transition to Room Z, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. page 4 PART III: THE SEMANTICS OF SAGES AND MISCHWESEN IN NED-ASSYRIAN ART 145 2. Detail of Fig. 1 showing the wild goat. 5 AND THOUGHT 3. Assyrian chariot attacking the enemy, Panel 8a, Room B, Northwest Palace of Introduction 147 Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 5 Before the Flood 150 4. Detail of Fig. 3 showing fallen enemy. 6 2 Fertilization and Purification 159 5. Assyrian soldiers crossing a river, Pancillb, Room B, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrlld. 6 ) King the Man, The King-Man 167 6. Scene from the transport of the colossal winged human-headed bull, Panel 6r, "Tiamat's Brood" 172 4 COlirt VI, Southwest Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. 8 The Ancient Mesopotamian Flood Traditions 184 7. Detail of Fig. 6 showing sow and its young. 9 6 Lord of the Netherworld 8. Ashllrnasirpalll hunting wild bulls, Panel 20a, Room H, Northwest Palace of Conclusion to Part III 201 A~hurnasirpaill at Nimrud. 9. Ashurnasirpalll hunting lions, Panel 19a, Room H, Northwest Palace of Epilogue 20) Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 16 Notes 205 10. Reconstruction drawing of Panels 18-20, Room H, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 16 Bibliography I I. Colossal winged human-headed lion, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal [J at Index Nimrud. 12. Detail of colossal winged human-headed hull, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud, 18 (3. Ashurnasirpal Illioating over dead bull, Panel 20b, Room 13, Northwest Palace of As hurna sir pal II at Nimrud. I9 I4. Ashurnasirpallllibating over dead lion, Panel [9b, Room 13, Nonhwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 19 1 5. Defeated enemy prostrating himself before Ashurnasirpal II, Panel 180, Room 13, Nonhwest Palace ofAshurnasirpalll at Nimrud. 20 l6, Assyrian soldiers crossing a river, Panel IOb, Room B, Northwest Palace of Ashumasirpal [J at Nimrud, 20 17. Reconstruction drawing of Panels 9-1 1, Room B, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud, 21 18. Detail of Fig. 16, Assyrian soldiers crossing a river. 21 vii viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IX 19· Tributaries with gifts, Panel 7, Courtyard 0, Northwest Palace of 43· A wingless genius carrying a flower and a wild goat, Panel 4, Fa~ade m, Palace Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 23 of Sargon II at Khorsabad. 52 20. Reconstruction drawing of the Panels 1-8, Courtyard 0, Northwest Palace of 44· lbree Assyrians in a forest hunting small animals and birds, panel from the Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 24 room in the detached building," Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad. 53 21. One of the faces of the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneset III showing Banrian 45· Scene from the assalllt and capture of the Elamite dty of Hamanu, Panel 8, camels, an elephant, apes, and tributaries. 25 Room C, North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. 54 22. Detail of Fig. 21 showing the elephant and apes. 26 46. The king's horses brought to be harnessed, the Royal Lion Hunt, Panels 7-8, 23· One of the faces of the Black Obelisk of Shaimaneset III showing tributaries Room C, North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. 54 and two human-headed quadrupeds. 27 47· Horses and grooms, Panels 28-30, Sloping Passage U, Southwest Palace of 24- Detail of Fig. 23 showing the human-headed quadrupeds. 28 Sennacherib at Nineveh. 55 25· One of the faces of the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III showing scenes of 48. Attendants with hounds, Panel 13(?), Room E, North Palace of Ashurbanipal submission, two Bactrian camels, a wildlife scene, and tributaries. 29 at Nineveh. 56 26. Detail of Fig. 25 showing the submission of Jehu, two Bactrian camels, and the 49· Musicians and lions, Panel 5, Room E, North Palace of Ashurbanipal at wildlife scene. 30 Nineveh. 57 27· One of the faces of the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III showing tributaries 50. Horses and attendants, Panel 12, Room S, North Palace of Ashurbanipal at and horned animals. 3 I Nineveh. 57 28. Detail of Fig. 27 showing the horned animals and some of the 51. "Lion Combat," Panel 13, Room S, North Palace of Ashurbanipal at tributaries. 33 Nineveh. 59 29· Human-headed apkallu holding deer and twig of flowers, Panel 30, Room B, 52· Doorway guardian figures, an ugallu (left) and a "hollse God," West jamb of Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 34 door 0, Room XXXI, Southwest Palace of Sel1nacherib at Nineveh. 62 30. Detail of Fig. 29 showing the upper part of the apkallu and the deer. 3 5 5 ). Assyrians recording booty, Panels IO and II, Room XXVHI, Southwest Palace )1. The "Sacred Tree," Panel 23, Room B, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at of Sennacherib at Nincvch. 6) Nimrud. 35 54· Sennacherib enthroned reviewing the booty of Lachish, Panels 12 and I}, )2. Assault of the City U[pa?], Series B, Panel I 5a, Central Palace of Room XXXVI, Southwest Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. 64 Tiglath-Pileser II1 at Nimrud. 4' 55. Detail from the Siege of Lachish, Panels 9-1 I, Room XXXVI, Southwest 33· Assyrian cavalrymen charging with bird of prey, Panel 3, Wall n, Southwest Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. 64 Palace at Nimrud. 4' 56. Detail from the Siege of Lachish, Panels 9 and lO, Room XXXVI, Southwest )4- Assyrian military camp scene showing soldiers playing catch with decapitated Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. 65 heads and a victory celebration, or "mummery," Panel 7a, Room B, Northwest 57. Assyrian military camp in the mountains. Drawing of Panel 20, Room XLVlII, Palace of Ashurnasirpal [I at Nimrud. 42 Somhwest Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. 65 35· Detail of Fig. }4 showing two men wearing lion skins performing a 58. Drawings of scenes from Assyrian military campaigns, Panels 5--7, Room XLV, " mummery. " 43 Southwest Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. 67 )6. Captured Babylonians, Panel 8, Room XXVIll, Southwest Palace of 59. Captives and cattie advancing toward the right along a row of palm trees, Sennacherib at Nineveh. 44 Panels 5 and 6, Room XXVIlI, Southwest Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. 69 )7· Assyrian cavalry pursuing an Arab on a camel, Series A, Panel lb, Room IU, 60. Doorway guardian figures, Room B, North l)~tlace of Ashur bani pal at Nineveh. 72 Central Palace ofTiglath-Pileser III at Nimflld. 44 61. Doorway guardian figures, Room B, Nonh Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. 72 ) 8. Assyrian officer leadil-lg Bedouin captives, Series A, Panel 6b, Room XIII, 62. Huntsmen and atrendanrs with hounds and nets going to the hUllt, Panel?, Central Palace ofTiglath-Pileser III at Nimrlld. 45 Room R, North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. 73 39. Ashurnasirpal II and his soldiers attacking a fortified city and deporting its 63. Detail from rhe return from the royal lion hum, Panel IO, Room C, North inhabitants, Panel 5b, Room B, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. 74 Nimrud. 46 6+ Attendants carrying home dead lions, Panel 10, Room C, North Palace of 40. Deportation scene, Series A, Panel 8a, Room XV, Central Palace of Ashurbanipal at' Nineveh. 75 Tiglath-Pileser III at Nimrud. 46 65. Scene fro.m the Batrle of Til Tuba on the River Ulai, Panel }, Room XXXlII, 41. Urartian(?) rider escaping Assyrian horsemen, Panel loa, Wall a, Southwest Southwest Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. 77 Palace at Nimrud. 47 66. Ashurnasirpal II assaulting a ciry, Panel }a, Room B, Northwest Palace of 42. Tiglath-Pilescr III in his chariot, Southwest Palace at Nimrud. 49 Ashurnasirpal II at' Nimrud. 78 x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi 67. Assyrian archers in chariots attacking the enemy, Panel 4a, Room B, Nonhwest 93. Monllmemal door frame of King Amenemhat-Sobekhorep from Medamud, Palace of Ashurnasirpai II at Nimrud. Thirteenth DynasC)'. "5 68. Reconstruction drawing of Panels 3-5, Room B, Northwest Palace of 94. Reconstruction draWing of Panels 6-8, Room C, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 79 AshurnasirpallI at Nimrud. ,,6 69. Hunting stags with nets, Panel 22(?), Room 5, North Palace of Ashurnasirpai 95. Reconstruction draWings orPands 4-7, Room N, Northwest Palace of II at Nineveh. 79 Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. [[7 70. Rows of captives advancing toward the right along a row of palm trees, 96. Reconstruction drawings of Panels 18~3 3, Room H, Northwest Palace at Panels 4 and 5, Room XXVIII, Southwest Palace ofSennacherib at Nineveh. Nimrud. [[8 7 I. Plan of the Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 97· Reconstruction drawing of Panels 1-17, Room L, Northwest Palace of 72. Drawing of the Stela of Esarhaddon from Zincirli. Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. Il9 73. Detail showing sword handle with lion protome, Panel 4, Room G, Northwest 98. Reconstruction drawing of Panels 5-17, Room F; Northwest Palace of Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 93 Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. [ 2 [ 74. Reconstruction drawings of Panels 1-5, Room G, Northwest Palace of 99· Reconstruction drawing of Panels 2-5, Room S, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 97 Ashul'l1asirpal II at Nimrud. [22 75. Ashurnasirpal II seated in ceremonial activity, Panels 2-4, Room G, Norchwest 100. Reconstruction drawing of the "Sacred Tree," Panel 13, Room B, Nordrwesr Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. Palace of Ashlll'l1asirpal II at Nimrud. [22 76. Detail ofPane!s 2-3, Room G, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at 101. AshlirnasirpallI hunting lion, Panel WFL J 4, Room WG, Northwest Palace of Nimrud. 99 Ashllrnasirpal II at Nimrud. [ 23 77. Detail of Panel 2, Room G, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. [00 102. Reconsrrllcrion drawing of Panels 2-I2, Room B, Northwest Palace of 78. Reconstruction drawings of Panels 7-20, Room I, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpalll at Nimrud. [24 Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. [00 103. Detail of the figure of the king at right of the "Sacred Tree" scene, Panel 23, 79. Detail of Panel 3, Room G, Northwest Palace of Ashllrnasirpa! II at Nimrud. [O[ Room B, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal [J at Niml'ud. [27 80. Detail showing protome on human-headed rlpkallu, Panel 2, Room G, 104· Derail showing winged disk and index fingers of the two figures of the king, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpaill at Nimrud. [03 "Sacred Tree" scene, Panel 23, Room B, Northwcst Palace of Ashurnasirpalll 81. Detail showing proto me on hllman-flpkrdlu, Panel 4, Room G, Northwest at Nimrud. 128 Palace of Ashurnasirpa! II at Nimrud. [03 105. Detail of human-headed rlpkrlllu at right of the "Sacred 'I i'ce" scene, Panel 23, 82. Detail of apkallu in Figs. I and 2 and decorated garment. [04 Room B, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Ninll'ud. 129 83. Detail showing protolUe on the left arm of Ashurnasirpalll, Panel 3, Room G, 106. Encounter between the king and the "crown prince," Panel 7a, Room B, Northwest Palace at Nimrud. [05 Nonhwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. [J [ 84. Reconstruction drawings of Room G, Panels 1-16. 106 (07. Nco-Assyrian cylinder seal impression depicting Gilgamesh and Ellkidu 85. Detail showing proton1e on the right arm of AshurnasirpallI, Panel 6, menacing the Bull of Heaven. [ 3 5 Room G, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. [07 108. Neo-A'Isyrian cylinder seal impression with tWo logograms, "Dingir," and 86. Detail with figure of the king at left, the "Sacred Tree" scene, Panel 23, "Ll!." Il7 Room B, Northwest Palace of Ashllrnasirpal II at Nimrud. [07 10<). Pharaoh making an offering in front of seated Osiris and standing l"Iol'lls, 87. Detail showing lion pro rome, Panel 3b, Room B, Northwest Palace of 'lemple of'Scty I at Abydos, NincteelHh Dynasty. [4[ Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. lOS 110. The Purification of Ramesses II, relief from the 'lemple of Scty I at Abydos, 88. Apkallu figure on Panel 12, Room G, Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpalll at Nineteellth Dynasty.' Nimrud. [09 I I I. Ashurnasirpal II Hanked by bird-headed genii, Room H Northwest Palace, 89. Detail of Fig. 88 shoWing prorome on the apkallu figure, Panel 12, Room G, Nirnrud. Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. [[0 112. Coronadoll of Ramesses II from the sOllth wall of the Great Hyposryle Hall of 90. Derail ofhllman-l1pkallu at left, the "Sacred Tree" scene, Panel 23, Room B, Karnak, Nineteenth Dynasty. [43 Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. lIO r 13. Fish-tlpkldlu on a wall panel from the Temple of Ninuna at Niml'ud. [ 5 [ 91. Reconstruction drawings of Panels 1-17, Room H, Northwest Palace of 114. Ritual basin with figures of a bearded god holding flowing vase Hanked by Ashllrnasirpal II at Nimrud. [[I flsh-Ilpkallus, eiglHh and seventh centuries BCr,:. 92. Lintel of Amen em hat I from his pyramid temple at Lisht, Twelfth Dynasry. [ [ 5 I I 5. Sety r erecting the djed pillar, 'lemplc of Sety I, Abydos, Nineteenth Dynasty xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATfONS 116. The Egyprian djed pillar surmounted by the solar disk as represented on an amulet. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 117. The Egyptian djed pillar surmounted by the solar disk as represented on an amulet. 118. Fragment of panel depicting a scorpion man, girtablilu, Central Building of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 173 119. Detail of scorpion man, girtablilu, showing mufbuHu phallus, Central Building of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 174 120. Detail of the mufbuffu bracelet from a slab depicting a wingless genius holding lion, Panel 46, Fas:ade n, Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad, 174 121. Lrtbmu holding lion, Panel 2, Fas:ade a, Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad. 175 J 22, Detail from a scene of transport of wood showing a lamassu amid the ships, Panel 2, Fas:ade n, Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad. 123. Detail from a scene of transport of wood showing a winged bull amid the ships, Panel 2, Fac;ade n, Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad. This study originated as part of my doctoral dissertation submined to the Deparrment of His 124, DoOtway guardian figure, Labmu holding spear, lower part of Panel 2 I, Court tory of Art and Architecture at Harvard University in 2003. My greatest intellectual debt is to VI, Southwest Palace of Sennachedb at Nineveh. 177 my advisor Irene]. Winter, who observed and guided the development of the project from its 125, Panel depicting an ugallu with a raised dagger from Gallery XLIX, Southwest beginning in the form of a seminar paper to its completion as a doctoral thesis. Her interest Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. in it and its offshoots has extended to my professional career, and I am most grateful for her 126. Chiastic ugrtllu pairs holding raised daggers and maces (upper register); sustained advice and support in my continuing endeavors to understand and interpret aspects lion-centaur (urmrtb1u1ftt) (lower register), Panel 2, entrance b, Room T, North of the visual language of the ancient Ncar East. Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, 179 I am also grateful to Gloria Ferrari Pinney and Paul-Alain Beaulieu, both of whom advised 127. Slab showing three gods, perhaps part of a group of seven known as the Sibittu, the dissertation at variolls stages, and both of whose scholarship has opened up new avenues of Court 0, North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. 179 perception and thinking in my research. 128. Babylonian stone kudurru showing the lion-staff of NcrgaL 181 Special thanks go to A. A. Donohue who read substantial parts of this study during the 129. Drawing of the Nco-Assyrian rock-cut relief in Maltai, reign of Sennacherib. 181 revision of the dissertation and offered incisive criticism and feedback. J 30. Relief panel depicting Ninurta chasing Anzu or Asakku from the Ninurta I am grateful to Paul Collins, curator of Later Mesopotamian Art in the British Museum, for Temple of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. 195 facilitating my access to parts of the museum (0 take pllotographs of many of the Nco-Assyrian palace relids there in Novemher 2008 and for providing digital images of some of the reliefs; many of these have been included as illustrarions in this boolc I am further grateful for gen erous funding from Harvard University and [he I-Ietty Goldman Fund from the Department of Classical and Ncar Eastern Archaeology at Bryn Mawr College that enabled me to travel to London, Paris, and Berlin a number of times over the last decade to study and photograph the Neo-Assyrian reliefs at the British Museum, the Louvre, and the Vorderasiatisches Museum. r am further indebted to the Lucy Shoe Meritt Fund From the Department of Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology fc)J' support in obtaining a number of the illustrations, and to Bryn Mawr College fc)J' a junior faculty research leave fCl[' the academic year 2007-8 during which the final f()fJn of the book manuscript was produced, I am especially grateful [(l a grant from the Millard Meiss Publication Fund awarded by College Art Associadon fc)l' supporting (he cost of the iHlIsnarion program of the book. I would like to thank Samuel Paley and Richard Sobolewski fc)r their generosity in giving me permission to reproduce (heir reconstruction drawings of the reliefs from the Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud, still unparalleled in quality and comprehensiveness, in this puhlicarion as well as in others. For many stimulating discllssions and criticism on occasions when I had the opportunity to share [he results of my research with mentors and colleagues, I would like to thank Tzvi Abusch, xiii xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Filide Aker, Andrew Cohen, ElifDenel, Amy GanseH, HoHy Pittman, Beate Pongrarz-Leisteo, John Russell, Piotr Steinkeller, Benjamin Studevent-Hickman, and Tugba Tanyeri-Erdemir. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Last but nor (east, I thank my family for their continuing interest in my scholarly activi ties and for their emotional support over the years in which this study was carried and au( finalized. AS The Art Bulletin. CAD 7he Assyrian Dictionary o/the Oriental Institute o/the University o/Chicago. Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1956-. CANE Sasson, Jack M., ed. Civilizations a/the Ancient Near East. 4 vols. New York: Scribner, [995. ]CS Journal of Cuneiform Studies. ]NES Journal o/Near h'(utern Studies. KAR Ebeling, Erich. Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religiiisen Inhalts. 2 vols. Wissenschafdiche Veroffentlichung der Deurschen Orient Gesellschaft 28 ('919) and J4 (1923). Leipzig:]. C. Hinrichs. '9'5-Z3. LdA Lexikon deriigyptologie. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz, 1972-93. OEAE Redford, Donald B., cd. Oxjord Encyclopedia ofA ncient Egypt. J vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. RIMAz Grayson, Albert Kirk. Assyrian Rulers o/the /:'rll'ly First Millennium Be I ([[ 14-859 HC). 'lhe Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia: Assyrian Periods. Vol. 2. F[oronto, Buffil(o, London: University of Toronto Press, [99 [. RIMA) Grayson, Alben Kirk. Assyrian Rulen ofth{~ Early Fint Millennium BC !I (858-74S Be). The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopmamia: Assyrian Periods. Vol. 3. Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of TOfOlltO Press, 1996. RIA Rerdlexikon del' As~yriologit, und vordemsiatischen Archfiologie. Berlin: Wa([cr de Gruyter, 1932. SIlV Standard Babylonian Version (of '/he Epic ofGilgrlmesh) xv PROLOGUE 111is study is as much about ancient Mesopotamian philosophy as it is about ancient Mesopotamian art. It is also as much concerned with ancient Mesopotamian iconography in a broad sense as it is morc specifically concerned with the iconography of one particular period of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization, the Neo-Assyrian Empire (88 )-6 12 BeE). 111e prin cipal objective is to layout and attempt to interpret a visual, and in essence sacral, language encoded in the art of the Nco-Assyrian palace reliefs and hypothesize the involvement of a scribal-sacerdotal elite, especially in their rapport with master craftsmen who would have been in a supervisory position, in the design and production of thi,~ corpus of sculpture. In this respen, this is an attempt toward a particular method of iconographic interpretalion that may have thc potcntial to be applied to other periods and cultures of the ancient Near East and to a certain extent its ancient Egyptian counterpart as well. Inasmuch as such an interpretation depends on contemporary textual sources, and inasmuch as an encoded language is also at stake in the case of ancient Mesopotamian texts, this s(Udy also encompasses a degree of textual analysis and intcrpretation. In the scholarship of the past several decades, both Assyrian and earlier Mesopotamian iconography have been examined almost exclusively in sociopolitical terms, with the emphasis placed on what one might refer to as the "outward" meaning of this art. Not enough emphasis has been devoted to its "inward" essence, the underlying levels of meaning embodied by this visual corpus. Here, without denying the clements of time and change within the three cen turies that witnessed thc development of the Nco-Assyrian palace rdiefs, I attempt to approach rhis material as a tradition grounded in certain principlcs of a fundamental nature and pro pose to analyze it within paradigms of traditional an, bringing to the f()re those aspects that til' together rhe various phases of its dcvelopment. Although the sociopolitical approaches of the I 970S and I 980s addressed a gap in the prior scholarship that attempted solely to explain the religious meaning of anciem Mesopotamian an, it is now time to turn back to d1at perspective in a more up-to-date man ncr with rhe added benefit of' rhe vastly increased amount and precision of textual and cross-cultural data now at our disposal. I In carrying out such an ;l[[empt, in addition to ancient Mesopotamian and Neo-Assyrian works of art and written sources, [ draw on a body of comparative cui[Urai data from a number of othcr ancicJl( and latcr traditions comprising Egyptian, Indic, Greek, and Cnostic. (n this regard, this s[Udy represents a preliminary (lneml)[ to decipher rhe art, xvii XVIII PROLOGUE PROLOGUE xix iconography, and, to a certain extent, the texts of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Thus, it is hoped one first needs to understand rhoroughly what this emblematic-hieratic mode entails before that it will fill a long-standing gap in the study of the art and culture of the ancient Near East. attempting to analyze the historical narrative present in the relief programs. Given that this There are three thematically focused but conceptually interrelated principal parts to this study does not attempt to be a comprehensive history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its an, study. Part I, "Human and Animal Ontology in the Neo-Assyrian Palace Reliefs," examines its specific focus and emphasis are the emblematic-hieratic mode of relief representation and a series of visual configurations in which human and animal anatomy are juxtaposed and the implications of its contelH. Future work, however, should investigate more closely how blended into one another in the relief programs of the five principal Neo-Assyrian kings who the reliefs depicting the contemporary military events and thus playing into the long-standing built palaces of their own in the three consecutive capital cities of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Assyrian historical tradition, which reaches back to the Middle Assyrian period (ca. 1350- Ashurnasirpalll (88)-859 BeE), Tiglath-Pileser 1II (744-727 BCE), Sargon 11 (721-7°5 BCE), 1000 BCE) and beyond, rclate to the mythical and philosophical paradigms presented by the Sennacherib (704-68 I BCE), and Ashurbanipal (668-627 BeE). It is intended both as an intro emblematic-hieratic mode. duction and an orientation to the Neo-Assyrian palace relief corpus examined throughout the Among other themes, the visual analysis carried out in Part II is primarily organized around study and as an initiation into the method of interpretation adopted therein. This part of the configurations of duality and union, understood as the duality and the union of the regnum study is the only section in this work in which the entire range of the Neo-Assyrian palace and the sacerdotium, the royal and the priestly, treated as fundamental philosophical concepts reliefs is analyzed, albeit selectively, by moving vertically in the chronology. In this respect, it found in traditional societies, regardless of whether one can talk about the presence of a full is also meant to provide a basic historical overview of some of the major developments in the time professional priesthood in anciem Mesopotamia or the Nco-Assyrian Empire. I argue establishment, growth, and collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. that the art of Ashurnasirpal II is richly and continuously emblematic in the expression of Part I in essence posits that certain elements of human and animal anatomy found on the these concepts, with many details, themes, and variations offering an extremely rich ground reliefs run in the form of a visual discourse throughout the scenes of Neo-Assyrian palace dec for visual analysis. oration, possibly revealing an understanding of the ontological kinship of man and animal Important changes take place in the art of the Nco-Assyrian Empire during the eighth and likely prevalent among the designers and carvers of the sculpture, if not generalizable to the seventh centuries, which witness the growth of Assyria into a cosmopolitan superpower in the broader Neo-Assyrian public. The presence of this mode of visual discourse in a variety of forms Near East. Within this line of development, although the said historical mode acquires a much throughout the reliefs that belong to the entire three centuries of the Nco-Assyrian period dis more expansive and panoramic quality with greater specificity in the depiction of contemporary closes to what extent common threads of morphology and visual rhetoric underlie an artistic military affairs, the emblematic-hieratic mode that is our focus here becomes less continuous tradition that also reHects significant elements of diversity and change. further, the disclosure and more discrete, especially ill the palaces of the Sargonids of the seventh century in Nineveh, of this mode of visual discourse is the first step here toward laying Ollt the subtle philosophical Sennacherib, and Ashurbanipal. In other words, whereas the art of Ashurnasirpal II may be contents of the Neo-Assyrian reliefs - contents that surely transcend a visual documentation thought of as continuously and consistently emblematic, the art of Sennacherib and Ashur of contemporary military and political event's. banipal arc only discretely so, and hence much less susceptible w the kind of rigorous visual Following this broad visual survey, Part II, "Kingship and Priesthood in the Art of Ashur analysis conducted on the reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II. nasirpal II," focuses on the art of one particular king, the first in the series of five examined And yet the semantic aspects of this later emblematic componem, especially inasmuch as in Part I, Ashurnasirpal II, the founder of the Nco-Assyrian Empire, who reigned in the first they relate to the ancient Mesopotamian intellectual tradition and its relevance to art, arc so half of the ninth century BeE. r[his part argues that the relief decoration of this king's palace, important that [hey deserve a lengthy concepwal (featmcnt. It is hence in this conceptual and the Northwest Palace on the cicadel of Nimrud, ancient Kalhu, is a highly emblematic and semantic direction that the last pan of this study is orientated, because the discrete figures of "hieratic" art woven with philosophical, mythological, and cosmological symbolisl'l'l that con the A1ischwesen, a Cerman term meaning "mixed being," fi:.Htlld especially in the palaces of stituted the conceptual backdrop to the sense of history present in this decorative program. Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal by no stretch of imagination parallel the almost endlessly con rnlis symbolism primarily entails lWO sources: the ancient Mesopotamian antediluvian tradi tinuous and rich variations in detail displayed by rhe emblematic reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II. tion expressed through the winged figures of the antediluvian sages and what one may under A thorough inventory of all these 6gures that appear in various parts of lhe palaces, primarily stand as the dialectics of the military and the sacral in the traditional philosophy of kingship, doorways, to search fi:.lr principles and pancrns of organization in their placement is a vast and expressed here in a distinctively Assyrian idiom. difficult project, especially given that the North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh is still nm rlllc historical element in the art' of Ashurnasirpalll manifests itself through representations well understood, and such a rask lies beyond [he scope of the present project. Future work, of what must have been the chief milicary events of this king's reign, primarily in the throne when the archaeological record is more complete, perhaps with the help of computerized tech room of the Northwest Palace. It would be misleading, however, to think of the historical and nology as well, would shed more IiglH on principles and patterns of placement of rhe figures of emblematic-hieratic components in the an of Ashurnasirpal II and his successors as two con Mischwesell in the Neo-Assyrial) palaces. ceptually separate modes of thinking, achieving two different things but regardless placed side Part Ill, ""Ihe Semantics of Sages and MiJchwesen in Nco-Assyrian An and 'Thought," hence by side in the decorative programs of the palaces. Rather, what we sce especially in the art of probes the levels of meaning behind ['his most directly mythological and emblematic vocab Ashurnasirpal II is to what extent the Neo-Assyrian historical tradition was not an afFair inde ulary of Nco-Assyrian iconography: represem<lrions in the Mischwesen fi:.)fln of "antediluvian pendent from the sacral and philosophical paradigms that were expressed primarily through the sages," the {Ip/wllus, in [he art of Ashurnasirpal n, and especially those of the "rebel gods," emblemacic-hieratic mode of representation, but one fully integrated with it. In this respect, depicted in a variety of forms combining animal and human, who fight against the organizers xx PROLOGUE and rulers of the cosmos according to the mythological saga related by rhe Babylonian poem of cosmogony, in the palaces of rhe Sargonids in the seventh century BeE. To date, in icono THE MYTHOLOGY OF KINGSHIP IN NEO-ASSYRIAN ART graphic studies, these representations have been thought of as primarily apotropaic, without much investigation inca their deep philosophical and cosmological allusions that also include the ancient Mesopotamian flood traditions. Part III presents a basic survey of major extant figures of the Mischwesen in the Neo-Assyrian palaces, identifying the figural types and indicating their locacions. An important argument this part of the study makes is that these mythical beings stand for a former generation of suppressed or bound gods who are now the concealed agents ofinitiatic knowledge, or "gnosis," and with whom the scribal~sacerdotal elite of the Assyrian court must have associated themselves. lhus, the presence in art of representations of these mythical beings should be understood as self referendal on the part of the court scholars elite and master craftsmen who were involved in the design and execution of this iconography. Part III hence attempts to contexrualize further the entire effort undertaken in this study within the ancient Mesopotamian jmellectual tradition, which the Assyrians traced back to a mythological proto-history that entailed the handing over of the arts and crafts of civilization from spirits and demigods to the humanity of the present time. In sum, the principal common denominator among the three main parts of this study is the analysis of visual discourses that underlie and transcend what have received attention so far as the external and the most obvious aspects of the Neo-Assyrian palace reliefs. On this common ground, however, each of these three parts has also its own distinctive agenda and Havor. In the case of Part I, the material is a vast array of scenes that include battles, deportations, tributary processions, and hunts - in a way the building blocks of the "historical narrative" that Neo Assyrian art is known for. The target here, however, is not "historical narrative" per se but a putative discourse in human and animal ontology that on the one hand transcends the subject matter of the scenes in which it is found, but on the other renders the deeper messages of those scenes more complex and meaningful. In Part II, the material is the vast array of emblematic scenes that depict Ashurnasirpal Il in what has been understood as a variety of his roles in the company of eunuch officials and antediluvian sages, and the target is a proposed discourse in the fundamental dialectics of kingship and priesthood that again transcends the historical career of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. Finally, the material of Part III is the body of highly emblematic representations of the supernatural beings of the Neo-Assyrian palaces, and the target is their semantics that on the one hand transcend their obviolls apotropaic function and on the other render that function more efficacious and meaningful. In all three parts of the study, each of the three underlying visual discourses speaks to the fact that this art is the creation of the minds and skills of exceptional master craftsmen, or master supervisors, who would have been very much part of the scholarly and intellectual milieu of the Neo-Assyrian cou('e