Threatened identities: The mothering experiences of asylum-seeking and refugee women in England Alice Haynes PhD Thesis University of East Anglia School of Social Work August 2013 This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived there from must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. Abstract This thesis reports a qualitative study undertaken to explore the mothering experiences of asylum-seeking and refugee women in England, with a specific focus on how these experiences affect their maternal identity. Maternal identity is defined here as a woman’s perceived sense of competence in her role as a mother. In-depth interviews were conducted with twenty-two asylum-seeking and refugee mothers. The study fills a significant gap in the research literature. Firstly, it provides a comprehensive account of the experiences related to mothering of asylum-seeking and refugee women in England. Secondly, it relates these experiences to the women’s maternal identity. Thirdly, drawing on both sociology and psychology and different approaches to analysing data, the thesis employs two theoretical frameworks, resilience theory and impression management theory, to try to understand the ways in which maternal identity can be protected. The mothers in the sample spoke about a range of experiences that impacted on their mothering practices and abilities. Many of these experiences were spoken about as presenting challenges to mothering. These included negotiating an opaque and hostile asylum system, poverty, housing problems, separation from children, social isolation, negotiating a new culture, parenting alone and intimate partner violence (IPV). Some of these experiences threatened the expressed maternal identity of some women. These experiences were threatening because they created a barrier between mothering expectations and actions. However, some women seemed more able to maintain a sense of competence in their mothering abilities, despite encountering multiple challenges to mothering. This is explained using resilience theory. The study adopts an alternative approach to understanding how maternal identity can be protected. It employs impression management theory to explore the way in which participants used language to negotiate their identities as ‘good’ mothers in the face of threats. The implications of the findings are discussed with regards to both government policy and those professionals working with asylum-seeking and refugee mothers. 2 Acknowledgements I would first and foremost like to thank the women who shared their stories with me. Many took part in the research at a very difficult time in their lives and I am grateful for the trust they placed in me. Many thanks also to staff at refugee support organisations for putting me in contact with the participants. I am grateful to them for taking the time to help me with this research, especially in the face of limited and ever-diminishing resources. Thank you also to the dynamic network of people in London and elsewhere persistently campaigning for the rights of asylum-seeking and refugee women. Their reports, events and seminars helped keep me on track. The best thing about a PhD is the people with whom you embark on it. I would like to thank my primary supervisor, Dr Jonathan Dickens, for three years of tireless enthusiasm, calmness, humour and insight. I couldn’t have asked for a better supervisor. Thank you also to my secondary supervisor, Professor Gillian Schofield, for steering me towards the PhD in the first place, and for the wealth of knowledge she imparted. I am enormously grateful to them both, and to Professor Margaret O’Brien, for the opportunities they afforded me outside my PhD research. I have also been lucky enough to have some wonderful colleagues/friends, who have supported me throughout and helped move the research along; thank you especially to Birgit, Alexia, Billy, Vicki, Kamena and Laura. I would also like to thank Jen for lending me her brilliant analytic mind at crucial points in the process. Finally, my gratitude goes to my family. Thank you to my mum and my siblings, Dan, Joe and Kate, for their endless love and encouragement, and for their excellent proof-reading skills. I am indebted in particular to Joe for his invaluable insight into the work. This thesis is dedicated to my mum and dad, who taught me the importance of compassion and justice; I hope those values are reflected in this research. Last but not least, thank you to Nick for his love, unshakable belief in me and for giving me such a wonderful life away from work. 3 Contents Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Contents 4 List of tables, figures and acronyms 8 PART ONE 9 Chapter 1: Introduction 9 Why is this research important? 10 The political context of seeking asylum in England 12 The process of seeking asylum in England 15 Research questions 17 Thesis outline 18 Chapter 2: Mothering in the context of the asylum process 21 Pre-migration experiences 21 Policy, service provision and accessibility: meeting needs 23 Living in a new country 34 Managing the consequences of poor maternal mental health 39 Summary 42 Chapter 3: Exploring maternal identity 43 Identity development 44 Understanding mothering expectations 50 Summary 56 Chapter 4: Experiencing and managing threats to maternal identity 57 Threats to maternal identity 57 Managing threats to maternal identity 62 Resilience theory 63 Countering threats to identity through impression management 69 Summary 78 4 PART TWO 79 Chapter 5: Research design and process 79 Choosing qualitative research methods: theoretical implications 79 Choosing qualitative research methods: practical implications 82 Reflecting on my position 84 Constructivist grounded theory 89 Recruiting participants 90 Ethical practice 92 Data collection 94 Analysing the data 99 Chapter 6: Introducing the participants 102 Nationalities and religious beliefs 102 Reasons for seeking asylum and asylum status 102 Location and length of time spent in England 104 Family unit 105 Chapter 7: The participants’ experiences of being mothers in England 108 Traversing an opaque and hostile asylum system 109 Unemployment and inadequate government financial support 115 Poor housing provision 118 Physical health and accessing services 122 Children’s educational opportunities 123 Separation from children 124 Social isolation and social support 126 Negotiating a new culture 128 Present, absent and abusive paternal figures 135 Mental health and accessing services 136 Summary 137 Chapter 8: Exploring threatened maternal identity 139 Making sense of threatened maternal identity 141 Barriers to provision for children 143 Barriers to protecting children 147 Barriers to being emotionally available for children 150 5 Barriers to supporting children’s development 153 Summary 154 Chapter 9: Protecting maternal identity against threats: a resilience perspective 155 Self-esteem, self-efficacy and hopefulness 157 The ability to think about and reflect on thoughts, feelings and behaviour 161 Significant close relationships 164 Social support networks 167 Religion 169 Education, employment and training (EET) 171 Summary 173 Chapter 10: Constructing the ‘good’ mother identity through impression management 175 Presenting oneself as a victim 177 Emphasising one’s ability to prioritise and guide children 182 Dismissing the impact of difficult experiences on oneself and one’s children 189 Summary 193 Chapter 11: Discussion and implications for practice 195 Summary of the thesis 196 Discussing the findings and relating them to previous research 198 Limitations of the study 211 Ideas for future research 212 Contribution to knowledge 214 Implications for policy and practice 214 Conclusion 220 Bibliography 221 Appendix A: Information flyer for participant recruitment 259 Appendix B: Information flyer for participant recruitment (professionals) 260 Appendix C: Pre-interview information sheet 261 Appendix D: Consent form 262 6 Appendix E: Post-interview support sheet 263 Appendix F: Interview guide 264 Appendix G: Examples of post-interview reflections 265 Appendix H: The process of conducting grounded theory analysis 266 Appendix I: Memo example 268 Appendix J: Coding list (examples) 269 7 List of tables, figures and acronyms Tables 5.1 Gender, age and birth place of children both living with their mothers and separated from them Figures 5.1 Asylum status 5.2 Ages of children living with mother 5.3 Ages of separated children Acronyms CBT Cognitive Behavioural Therapy DLR Discretionary Leave to Remain EET Education, Employment and Training FGM Female Genital Mutilation ILR Indefinite Leave to Remain IPV Intimate Partner Violence IRC Immigration Removal Centre NHS National Health Service PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Disorder UKBA United Kingdom Border Agency UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 8 PART ONE Chapter 1: Introduction Asylum-seeking and refugee mothers in England are a vulnerable and marginalised group of women who care for their children in challenging circumstances. This thesis explores their mothering experiences, with a focus on how these experiences impact on their maternal identity. Existing research with asylum-seeking mothers and children migrating to a range of Western countries shows that they face common, challenging experiences. Many asylum-seeking mothers have encountered traumatic pre-migration and flight experiences, including direct and indirect experiences of violence, loss, sexual assault and rape (Ryan, Dooley, & Benson, 2008). Their children also often experience trauma (Barenbaum, Ruchkin, & Schwab-Stone, 2004). Some mothers are able to flee from their countries of origin with their children, while others leave alone. On arrival in host countries, mothers encounter substantial post-migration stressors that can further damage their physical and mental health, and that of their children (Deacon & Sullivan, 2009; Refugee Council, 2009). Mothers are required to navigate the legal process of seeking asylum, encounter language barriers and frequently live in poverty (Penrose, 2002; Rights of Women, 2012). Some struggle to negotiate the complexities of new childrearing norms as their children integrate into the host society, and some face the prospect of mothering from a distance (Dumper, 2002; Ochocka & Janzen, 2008; Suarez-Orozco, Todorova, & Louie, 2002). Many are separated from their family, friends, and in some cases, their partners (Rousseau, Rufagarib, Bagilishyaa, & Meashama, 2004). This thesis explores the experiences of mothers in England, looking at the ways in which their experiences can have significant and negative consequences for mothering, and in turn, for their evaluation of themselves as mothers. 9 Why is this research important? This research is important for a number of theoretical and practical reasons. Firstly, the experiences of this specific group are under-researched. The processes of mothering in the specific context of the UK asylum process have not been given adequate attention. The existing research accounts for the experiences of women, children, parents and families within a wider migratory context, and is often conducted outside the UK, particularly in the US, Canada and Australia (Bhopal, 1998; Deacon & Sullivan, 2009; Lewig, Arney, Salveron, & Barredo, 2010b; Liamputtong & Naksook, 2003; Samuel, 2009; Segal & Mayadas, 2005; Tummala- Narra, 2004). Secondly, asylum-seeking and refugee women are some of the most vulnerable people in British society (Refugee Council, 2012). In order to better support this vulnerable group, it is first necessary to increase our understanding of their experiences. Asylum-seeking and refugee mothers do encounter many of the same experiences faced by other groups of mothers living in difficult circumstances. For example, like asylum-seeking and refugee mothers, migrant mothers may encounter language barriers and the difficulties of negotiating a new culture. Equally, some white British mothers living in poverty encounter similar difficulties in terms of providing financially for their children. However, asylum-seeking and refugee mothers’ experiences are unique in that they must face these challenges at the same time as negotiating the asylum process and coping with pre-migration trauma. These experiences do not just affect the wellbeing of mothers but also the wellbeing of children. In particular, poverty, intimate partner violence (IPV), inadequate housing and poor physical health, as well as the stress and anxiety caused by pre-migration trauma and resettlement, can be detrimental to children’s wellbeing (Bradley, 2007; British Medical Association, 2002; Georgsson, Almqvist, & Broberg, 2011; Harker, 2006; Penrose, 2002). Research into the lives of this marginalised population may help to improve service provision for them. In addition, the recent economic recession in the UK has caused substantial cuts to the government funding of asylum-seeking and refugee support services (Refugee Council, 2011), which play a vital role in supporting these families in the absence 10