Project Gutenberg's Montessori Elementary Materials, by Maria Montessori This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Montessori Elementary Materials The Advanced Montessori Method Author: Maria Montessori Translator: Arthur Livingston Release Date: June 4, 2013 [EBook #42869] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIALS *** Produced by Alicia Williams, Emmy and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned images of public domain material from the Google Print project.) Music files created by Linda Cantoni. Transcriber's Notes: The cover for this electronic edition has been created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain. Cover THE MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL The first Montessori Elementary Class in America, opened in Rivington Street, New York, May, 1916. THE ADVANCED MONTESSORI METHOD THE MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL BY MARIA MONTESSORI AUTHOR OF "THE MONTESSORI METHOD," "PEDAGOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY," ETC. TRANSLATED FROM THE ITALIAN BY ARTHUR LIVINGSTON ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ITALIAN AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY WITH FORTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS AND WITH NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS Emblem NEW YORK FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY PUBLISHERS Copyright, 1917, by Frederick A. Stokes Company All rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The patent rights in the Montessori apparatus and material are controlled, in the United States and Canada, by The House of Childhood, Inc., 16 Horatio Street, New York. The publishers are indebted to them for the photographs showing the Grammar Boxes. TRANSLATOR'S NOTE So far as Dr. Montessori's experiments contain the affirmation of a new doctrine and the illustration of a new method in regard to the teaching of Grammar, Reading and Metrics, the following pages are, we hope, a faithful rendition of her work. But it is only in these respects that the chapters devoted to these subjects are to be considered a translation. It will be observed that Dr. Montessori's text is not only a theoretical treatise but also an actual text-book for the teaching of Italian grammar, Italian reading and Italian metrics to young pupils. Her exercises constitute a rigidly "tested" material: her Italian word lists are lists which, in actual practise, have accomplished their purpose; her grammatical categories with their relative illustration are those actually mastered by her Italian students; her reading selections and her metrical analyses are those which, from an offering doubtless far more extensive, actually survived the experiment of use in class. It is obvious that no such value can be claimed for any "translation" of the original material. The categories of Italian grammar are not exactly the categories of English grammar. The morphology and, to a certain extent, the syntax of the various parts of speech differ in the two languages. The immediate result is that the Montessori material offers much that is inapplicable and fails to touch on much that is essential to the teaching of English grammar. The nature and extent of the [vii] [viii] difficulties thus arising are more fully set forth in connection with specific cases in our text. Suffice it here to indicate that the English material offered below is but approximately "experimental," approximately scientific. The constitution of a definitive Montessori material for English grammar and the definitive manner and order of its presentment must await the results of experiments in actual use. For the clearer orientation of such eventual experiments we offer, even for those parts of Italian grammar which bear no relation to English, a virtually complete translation of the original text; venturing meanwhile the suggestion that such studies as Dr. Montessori's treatise on the teaching of Italian noun and adjective inflections—entirely foreign to English—may prove valuable to all teachers of modern languages. While it might seem desirable to isolate such superfluous material from the "English grammar" given below, we decided to retain the relative paragraphs in their actual position in the Italian work, in order to preserve the literal integrity of the original method. Among our additions to the text we may cite the exercises on the possessive pronouns—identified by Dr. Montessori with the possessive adjectives—the interrogatives and the comparison of adjectives and adverbs. Even where, as regards morphology, a reasonably close adaptation of the Italian material to English uses has been possible, it by no means follows that the pedagogical problems involved remain the same. The teaching of the relative pronoun, for instance, is far more complicated in English than in Italian; in the sense that the steps to be taken by the child are for English more numerous and of a higher order. Likewise for the verb, if Italian is more difficult as regards variety of forms, it is much more simple as regards negation, interrogation and progressive action. We have made no attempt to be consistent in adapting the translation to such difficulties. In general we have treated the parts of speech in the order in which they appear in the Italian text, though actual experiment may prove that some other order is desirable for the teaching of English grammar. The English material given below is thus in part a translation of the original exercises in Italian, in part new. In cases where it proved impossible to utilize any of the Italian material, an attempt has been made to find sentences illustrating the same pedagogical principle and involving the same number and character of mental processes as are required by the original text. The special emphasis laid by Dr. Montessori upon selections from Manzoni is due simply to the peculiar conditions surrounding the teaching of language in Italy, where general concepts of the national language are affected by the existence of powerful dialects and the unstable nature of the grammar, vocabulary and syntax of the national literature. We have made no effort to find a writer worthy of being set up as a like authority, since no such problem exists for the American and English public. Our citations are drawn to a large extent from the "Book of Knowledge" and from a number of classics. Occasionally for special reasons we have translated the Italian original. The chapter on Italian metrics has been translated entire as an illustration of method; whereas the portion relating to English is, as explained below, entirely of speculative character. To Miss Helen Parkhurst and Miss Emily H. Greenman thanks are due for the translation of the chapters on Arithmetic, Geometry, and Drawing. CONTENTS PART I GRAMMAR Translator's Note vii CHAPTER PAGE I. The Transition from the Mechanical to the Intellectual Development of Language 3 II. Word Study 12 Suffixes and Prefixes 13 Suffixes 13 Prefixes 17 Compound Words 18 Word-Families 20 III. Article and Noun 22 Singular and Plural 25 Masculine and Feminine 27 Singular and Plural in English 33 IV. Lessons—Commands 39 Nouns 40 Commands on Nouns 48 V. Adjectives 51 Analyses 51 Descriptive Adjectives 51 [viii] [ix] [xi] [x] Permutations 55 Inflection of Adjectives 56 Logical and Grammatical Agreement of Nouns and Adjectives 59 Descriptive Adjectives 61 Adjectives of Quantity 63 Ordinals 64 Demonstrative Adjectives 64 Possessive Adjectives 65 Comparison of Adjectives 65 VI. Verbs 66 Analyses 66 Permutations 68 Lessons and Commands on the Verb 69 Lessons with Experiments 74 VII. Prepositions 77 Analyses 77 Permutations 80 Lessons and Commands on Prepositions 81 VIII. Adverbs 85 Analyses 85 Permutations 87 Lessons and Commands on Adverbs 90 A Burst of Activity: the Future of the Written Language in Popular Education 93 Commands Improvised by the Children 96 IX. Pronouns 98 Analyses 98 Personals 98 Demonstratives 99 Relatives and Interrogatives 99 Possessives 101 Permutations 101 Lessons and Commands on the Pronoun 102 Paradyms 106 Agreement of Pronoun and Verb 108 Conjugation of Verbs 110 X. Conjunctions 113 Analyses 113 Coordinates 113 Subordinates 114 Permutations 115 Lessons and Commands on the Conjunction 115 Comparison of Adjectives 117 XI. Interjections 120 Analyses 120 Classification 122 XII. Sentence Analysis 124 Simple Sentences 124 The Order of Elements in the Sentence: Permutations 132 [xii] [xiii] Compound and Complex Sentences 136 Test Cards 140 The Order of Clauses in the Sentence: Sentence Forms in Prose and Verse 144 Permutations 147 Test Cards 151 Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions 155 Sequence of Tenses 157 Punctuation 160 XIII. Word Classification 164 Kinds of Words 164 Classified According to Formation 164 Classified According to Inflection 165 Classified According to Their Use 165 PART II READING I. Expression and Interpretation 171 Mechanical Processes 171 Analysis 173 Experimental Section: Reading Aloud 179 Interpretations 182 Audition 196 The Most Popular Books 198 PART III ARITHMETIC I. Arithmetical Operations 205 Numbers 1-10 205 Tens, Hundreds and Thousands 208 Counting-frames 210 II. The Multiplication Table 217 III. Division 223 IV. Operations in Several Figures 225 Addition 225 Subtraction 227 Multiplication 228 Multiplying on Ruled Paper 235 Long Division 237 V. Exercises with Numbers 241 Multiples, Prime Numbers and Factoring 241 VI. Square and Cube of Numbers 251 PART IV GEOMETRY I. Plane Geometry 259 II. Didactic Material Used for Geometry 265 Squares and Divided Figures 265 Fractions 267 [xiv] Reduction of Common Fractions to Decimal Fractions 273 Equivalent Figures 277 Some Theorems Based on Equivalent Figures 282 Division of a Triangle 289 Inscribed and Concentric Figures 290 III. Solid Geometry 292 The Powers of Numbers 294 The Cube of a Binomial 295 Weights and Measures 295 PART V DRAWING I. Linear Geometric Design Decoration 301 Artistic Composition with the Insets 305 II. Free-Hand Drawing: Studies from Life 307 PART VI MUSIC I. The Scale 319 II. The Reading and Writing of Music 326 Treble and Bass Clefs 328 III. The Major Scales 333 IV. Exercises in Rhythm 341 Singing 365 Musical Phrases for Rhythmic Exercises 367 V. Musical Auditions 376 PART VII METRICS I. The Study of Metrics in Elementary Schools 383 Stanza and line 384 Rhyme 384 Tonic accents (stresses) 385 Parisyllabic lines 386 Imparisyllabic lines 388 The cæsura 391 Metrical analyses 392 Translator's note on English metrics 395 Material for nomenclature 404 Appendix I 409 Appendix II 423 ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE The first Montessori Elementary Class in America Frontispiece One of the first steps in grammar 24 Grammar Boxes, showing respectively two and three parts of speech 25 [xv] [xvi] [xvii] Grammar Boxes, showing respectively four and five parts of speech 78 Grammar Boxes, showing respectively six and seven parts of speech 79 Grammar Boxes, showing respectively eight and nine parts of speech 114 The children working at their various occupations in complete freedom 115 Interpreted reading: "Smile and clap your hands" 174 Interpreted reading: "Take off your hat and make a low bow" 175 Interpreted reading: "Whisper to him" 188 Interpreting the pose and expression of a picture 189 Interpreted reading: "She was sleepy; she leaned her arms on the table, her head on her arms, and went to sleep" 200 Exercises in interpreted reading and in arithmetic 201 The bead material used for addition and subtraction 214 Counting and calculating by means of the bead chains 214 The bead chain, square, and cube 215 The first bead frame 215 The second counting-frame used in arithmetic 226 Working out problems in seven figures 227 Solving a problem in long division 238 Bead squares and cubes; and the arithmetic-board for multiplication and division 239 The bead number cubes built into a tower 282 The decagon and the rectangle composed of the same triangular insets 283 The triangular insets fitted into their metal plates 283 Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two rectangles 288 Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two squares 289 Hollow geometric solids 296 Designs formed by arranging sections of the insets within the frames 297 Making decorative designs with the aid of geometric insets 312 Water-color paintings from nature 313 The monocord 334 Material for indicating the intervals of the major scale 334 The music bars 335 The children using the music bells and the wooden keyboards 352 Analyzing the beat of a measure while walking on a line 353 PART I GRAMMAR MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL I THE TRANSITION FROM THE MECHANICAL TO THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE In the "Children's Houses" we had reached a stage of development where the children could write words and even [xviii] [1] [2] [3] sentences. They read little slips on which were written different actions which they were to execute, thus demonstrating that they had understood them. The material for the development of writing and reading consisted of two alphabets: a larger one with vowels and consonants in different colors, and a smaller one with all the letters in one color. (In English, to diminish the phonetic difficulties of the language, combinations of vowels and consonants, known as phonograms, are used. The phonograms with few exceptions have constant sounds and little attention is paid to the teaching of the separate values of the different letters: not until the child has built up his rules inductively does he realize the meaning of separate vowel symbols.) However, the actual amount of progress made was not very precisely ascertained. We could be sure only that the children had acquired the mechanical technique of writing and reading and were on the way to a greater intellectual development along these lines. Their progress, however extensive it may have been, could be called little more than a foundation for their next step in advance, the elementary school. What beyond all question was accomplished with the little child in the first steps of our method was to establish the psycho-motor mechanism of the written word by a slow process of maturation such as takes place in the natural growth of articulate speech; in other words, by methodically exercising psycho-motor paths. Later on the child's mind is able to make use of the successive operations performed with the written language which has been thus built up by the child as a matter of mechanical execution (writing) and to a certain extent of intelligent interpretation (reading). Normally this is an established fact at the age of five. When the child begins to think and to make use of the written language to express his rudimentary thinking, he is ready for elementary work; and this fitness is a question not of age or other incidental circumstance but of mental maturity. We have said, of course, that the children stayed in the "Children's House" up to the age of seven; nevertheless they learned to write, to count, to read, and even to do a certain amount of simple composition. It is clear, accordingly, that they had gone some distance in the elementary grade as regards both age and educational development. However, what they had actually accomplished beyond the mechanical technique of writing was more or less difficult to estimate. We can now say that our later experiments have not only clarified this situation, but enabled us to take the children much farther along than before. This only proves, however, that on beginning elementary grade work we did not depart from the "Children's House" idea; on the contrary we returned to it to give distinct realization to the nebulous hopes with which our first course concluded. Hence the "Children's House" and the lower grades are not two distinct things as is the case with the Fröbel Kindergarten and the ordinary primary school—in fact, they are one and the same thing, the continuation of an identical process. Let us return then to the "Children's House" and consider the child of five and one-half years. To-day in those "Children's Houses" which have kept up with the improvements in our method the child is actually started on his elementary education. From the second alphabet of the "Children's House" we go on to a third alphabet. Here the movable letters are a great deal smaller and are executed in model hand-writing. There are twenty specimens of each letter, whereas formerly there were but four; furthermore, there are three complete alphabets, one white, one black, and one red. There are, therefore, sixty copies of each letter of the alphabet. We include also all the punctuation marks: period, comma, accents (for Italian), apostrophe, interrogation and exclamation points. The letters are made of plain glazed paper. The uses of this alphabet are many; so before we stop to examine them let us look somewhat ahead. Everybody has recognized the naturalness of the exercise, used in the "Children's House," where the children placed a card bearing the name of an object on the object referred to. This was the first lesson in reading. We could see that the child knew how to read as soon as he was able to identify the object indicated on the card. In schools all over the world a similar procedure would, I imagine, be considered logical. I suppose that in all the schools where the objective method is used much the same thing is done; and this is found to be not a hindrance but a help to the child in learning the names of objects. As regards the teaching of the noun, accordingly, we have been using methods already in use—the objective method, with practical exercises. But why should we restrict such methods to the noun? Is the noun not just as truly a part of speech as the adjective, or the verb? If there is a method by which the knowledge of a noun is made easy, may there not be similar ways of facilitating the learning of all the other parts of speech (article, adjective, verb, pronoun, adverb, interjection, conjunction, and preposition)? When a slip with the interpreted word is placed on the object corresponding to it, the children are actually distinguishing the noun from all the other parts of speech. They are learning intuitively to define it. The first step has thus been taken into the realm of grammar. But if this "reading" has brought the child directly into word classification, the transition has not been for him so abrupt as might at first appear. The child has built all his words with the movable alphabet, and he has, in addition, written them. He has thus traversed a two-fold preparatory exercise involving, first, the analysis of the sounds and, second, the analysis of the words in their meaning. In fact, we have seen that, as the child reads, it is his discovery of the tonic accent that brings him to recognize the word. The child has begun to analyze not only the sounds and accent but also the form of the word. How absurd it would seem to suggest a study of phonology and morphology in a nursery with four-year-old children as investigators! Yet our children have accomplished this very thing! The analysis was the means of attaining the word. It was what made the child able to write without effort. Why should such a procedure be useful for single words and not so for connected discourse? Proceeding to the classification of words by distinguishing the noun from all other words, we have really advanced into the analysis of connected speech, just as truly as, by having the sand-papered letters "touched" and the word pronounced, we took the first step into the analysis of words. We have only to carry the process farther and perhaps we shall succeed in getting the analysis of whole sentences, just as we succeeded in getting at the composition of words— discovering meanwhile a method which will prove efficacious in leading the child to write his thoughts more perfectly than would seem possible at such a tender age. For some time, then, we have been actually in the field of grammar. It is a question simply of continuing along the same [4] [5] [6] [1] [7] path. The undertaking may indeed seem hazardous. Never mind! That "awful grammar," that horrible bugaboo, no less terrible than the frightful method, once in use, of learning to read and write, may perhaps become a delightful exercise, a loving guide to lead the child along pleasant pathways to the discovery of things he has actually performed. Yes, the child will suddenly find himself, one day, in possession of a little composition, a little "work of art," that has issued from his own pen! And he will be as happy over it as he was when for the first time words were formed by his tiny hands! How different grammar will seem to the young pupil, if, instead of being the cruel assassin that tears the sentence to pieces so that nothing can be understood, it becomes the amiable and indispensable help to "the construction of connected discourse"! It used to be so easy to say: "The sentence is written! Please leave it alone!" Why put asunder what God has joined? Why take away from a sentence its meaning, the very thing which gave it life? Why make of it a mere mass of senseless words? Why spoil something already perfect just for the annoyance of plunging into an analysis which has no apparent purpose? Indeed, to impose upon people who can already read the task of reducing every word to its primal sounds, would be to demand of them an effort of will so gigantic that only a professional philologist could apply himself to it with the necessary diligence, and then only because he has his own particular interests and aims involved in such work. Yet the four-year-old child, when he passes from those meaningless sounds to the composition of a whole, which corresponds to an idea and represents a useful and wonderful conquest, is just as attentive as the philologist and perhaps even more enthusiastic. He will find the same joy in grammar, if, starting from analyses, it gains progressively in significance, acquiring, step by step, a greater interest, working finally up to a climax, up to the moment, that is, when the finished sentence is before him, its meaning clear and felt in its subtlest essences. The child has created something beautiful, full grown and perfect at its birth, not now to be tampered with by anybody! The analysis of sounds which, in our method, leads to spontaneous writing, is not, to be sure, adapted to all ages. It is when the child is four or four and a half, that he shows the characteristically childlike passion for such work, which keeps him at it longer than at any other age, and leads him to develop perfection in the mechanical aspect of writing. Similarly the analytical study of parts of speech, the passionate lingering over words, is not for children of all ages. It is the children between five and seven who are the word-lovers. It is they who show a predisposition toward such study. Their undeveloped minds can not yet grasp a complete idea with distinctness. They do, however, understand words. And they may be entirely carried away by their ecstatic, their tireless interest in the parts of speech. It is true that our whole method was born of heresy. The first departure from orthodoxy was in holding that the child can best learn to write between the ages of four and five. We are now constrained to advance another heretical proposition: children should begin the study of grammar between the ages of five and a half and seven and a half, or eight! The idea that analysis must be preceded by construction was a matter of mere prejudice. Only things produced by nature must be analyzed before they can be understood. The violet, for instance, is found perfect in nature. We have to tear off the petals, cut the flower into sections to see how it grew. But in making an artificial violet we do just the opposite. We prepare the stems piece by piece; then we work out the petals, cutting, coloring, and ironing them one by one. The preparation of the stamens, even of the glue with which we put the whole together, is a distinct process. A few simple-minded people, with a gift for light manual labor, take unbounded delight in these single operations, these wonderfully varied steps which all converge to the creation of a pretty flower; the beauty of which depends on the amount of patience and skill applied to the work on the individual parts. Analysis, furthermore, is involved quite as much in building as in taking to pieces. The building of a house is an analytical process. The stones are treated one by one from cellar to roof. The person who puts the house together knows it in its minutest details and has a far more accurate idea of its construction than the man who tears it down. This is true, first, because the process of construction lasts much longer than that of demolition: more time is spent on the study of the different parts. But besides this, the builder has a point of view different from that of the man who is destroying. The sensation of seeing a harmonious whole fall into meaningless bits has nothing in common with the alternating impulses of hope, surprise or satisfaction which come to a workman as he sees his edifice slowly assuming its destined form. For these and still other reasons, the child, when interested in words at a certain age, can utilize grammar to good purpose, dwelling analytically upon the various parts of speech according as the processes of his inner spiritual growth determine. In this way he comes to own his language perfectly, and to acquire some appreciation of its qualities and power. Our grammar is not a book. The nouns (names), which the child was to place on the objects they referred to as soon as he understood their meaning, were written on cards. Similarly the words, belonging to all the other parts of speech, are written on cards. These cards are all of the same dimensions: oblongs (5 × 3-1/2 cmm.) of different colors: black for the noun; tan for the article; brown for the adjective; red for the verb; pink for the adverb; violet for the preposition; yellow for the conjunction; blue for the interjection. These cards go in special boxes, eight in number. The first box has two compartments simply; the second, however, three; the third, four; and so on down to the eighth, which is divided into nine. One wall in each section is somewhat higher than the others. This is to provide space for a card with a title describing the contents of the section. It bears, that is, the name of the relative part of speech. The title-card, furthermore, is of the same color as that used for the part of speech to which it refers. The teacher is expected to arrange these boxes so as to provide for the study of two or more parts of speech. However, our experiments have enabled us to make the exercises very specific in character; so that the teacher has at her disposal not only a thoroughly prepared material but also something to facilitate her work and to check up the accuracy of it. FOOTNOTE: [1] The process of learning to read has been more fully set forth in The Montessori Method; the child [8] [9] [10] [11] at first pronounces the sounds represented by the individual letters (phonograms), without understanding what they mean. As he repeats the word several times he comes to read more rapidly. Eventually he discovers the tonic accent of the word, which is then immediately identified. II WORD STUDY When a little child begins to read he shows a keen desire to learn words, words, words! Indeed in the "Children's House" we had that impressive phenomenon of the children's tireless reading of the little slips of paper upon which were written the names of objects. The child must acquire his word-store for himself. The peculiar characteristic of the child's vocabulary is its meagerness. But he is nearing the age when he will need to express his thoughts and he must now acquire the material necessary for that time. Many people must have noticed the intense attention given by children to the conversation of grown-ups when they cannot possibly be understanding a word of what they hear. They are trying to get hold of words, and they often demonstrate this fact by repeating joyously some word which they have been able to grasp. We should second this tendency in the child by giving him an abundant material and by organizing for him such exercises as his reactions clearly show us are suitable for him. The material used in our system not only is very abundant, but it has been dictated to us by rigid experimentation on every detail. However, the same successive choices of material do not appear among the children as a whole. Indeed their individual differences begin to assert themselves progressively at this point in their education. The exercises are easy for some children and very hard for others, nor is the order of selection the same among all the children. The teacher should know this material thoroughly. She should be able to recognize the favorable moment for presenting the material to the child. As a matter of fact, a little experience with the material is sufficient to show the teacher that the educational facts develop spontaneously and in such a way as to simplify the teacher's task in a most surprising manner. Suffixes and Prefixes Here we use charts with printed lists of words which may be hung on the wall. The children can look at them and also take them in their hands. List I SUFFIXES: AUGMENTATIVES, DIMINUTIVES, PEGGIORATIVES, ETC. buono (good): buonuccio, buonino, buonissimo casa (house): casona, casetta, casettina, casuccia, casaccia, casettaccia formica (ant): formicona, formicuccia, formicola, formichetta ragazzo (boy): ragazzone, ragazzino, ragazaccio, ragazzetto lettera (letter): letterina, letterona, letteruccia, letteraccia campana (bell): campanone, campanello, campanellino, campanino, campanaccio giovane (youth): giovanetto, giovincello, giovinastro fiore (flower): fioretto, fiorellino, fioraccio, fiorone tavolo (board): tavolino, tavoletta, tavolone, tavolaccio seggiola (chair): seggiolone, seggiolina, seggiolaccia pietra (stone): pietruzza, pietrina, pietrone, pietraccio sasso (rock): sassetto, sassolino, sassettino, sassone, sassaccio cesto (basket): cestino, cestone, cestello, cestellino piatto (plate): piattino, piattello, piattone pianta (plant or tree): piantina, pianticella, pianticina, pianterella, piantona, piantaccia fuoco (fire): fuochetto, fuochino, fuocherello, fuocone, fuochettino festa (festival): festicciola, festona, festaccia piede (foot): piedino, piedone, pieduccio, piedaccio mano (hand): manina, manona, manaccia, manuccia seme (seed): semino, semetto, semone, semaccio, semettino semplice (simple person): semplicino, semplicetto, sempliciotto, semplicione ghiotto ("sweet-tooth"): ghiottone, ghiottoncello, ghiottaccio, ghiottissimo vecchio (old man): vecchietto, vecchione, vecchiaccio, vecchissimo cieco (blind): ciechino, ciechetto, ciecolino, ciecone, ciecaccio Note:—The rôle of augmentative and diminutive suffixes in English is vastly less important than in Italian. Here are a few specimens: lamb—lambkin duck—duckling bird—birdling [12] [13] [14] nest—nestling goose—gosling mouse—mousie girl—girlie book-booklet brook—brooklet stream—streamlet poet—poetaster The child's exercise is as follows: he composes the first word in any line with the alphabet of a single color (e.g., black). Next underneath and using the alphabet of the same color, he repeats the letters in the second word which he sees also in the first. But just as soon as a letter changes he uses the alphabet of another color (e.g., red). In this way the root is always shown by one color, the suffixes by another; for example:— buono buonuccio buonino buonissimo For English: stream streamlet lamb lambkin Then the child chooses another word and repeats the same exercise. Often he finds for himself words not included in the list which is given him. In the following chart the suffixes are constant while the root varies. Here the suffix changes the meaning of the word. From the original meaning is derived the word for a trade, a place of business, an action, a collective or an abstract idea. Naturally, the child does not realize all this at first but limits himself merely to building the words mechanically with the two alphabets. Later on, however, as grammar is developed, he may return to the reading of these charts, which are always at his disposal, and begin to realize the value of the differences. List II macello (slaughter) macellaio (butcher) sella (saddle) sellaio (saddler) forno (oven) fornaio (baker) cappello (hat) capellaio (hatter) vetro (glass) vetreria (glaziery) calzolaio (shoe-maker) calzoleria (shoe-shop) libro (book) libreria (book-store) oste (host) osteria (inn) pane (bread) panetteria (bakery) cera (wax) cereria (chandler's shop) dente (tooth) dentista (dentist) farmacia (pharmacy) farmacista (druggist) elettricita (electricity) elettricista (electrician) telefono (telephone) telefonista (telephone operator) arte (art) artista (artist) bestia (beast) bestiame (cattle) osso (bone) ossame (bones, collective) corda (string) cordame (strings, collective) foglia (leaf) fogliame (foliage) pollo (chicken) pollame (poultry) grato (grateful) gratitudine (gratitude) beato (blessed) beatitudine (blessedness) inquieto (uneasy) inquietudine (uneasiness) grano (grain) granaio (barn) colombo (dove) colombaio (dove-cote) paglia (straw) pagliaio (hay-stack) frutto (fruit) frutteto (orchard) canna (reed) canneto (brake) oliva (olive) oliveto (olive-grove) quercia (oak) querceto (oak-grove) English Examples teach teacher sing singer [15] [16] work worker cater caterer wring wringer conduct conductor direct director launder laundry seam seamstress song songstress priest priestess mister mistress cow cowherd piano pianist art artist pharmacy pharmacist drug druggist physic physician prison prisoner house household earl earldom king kingdom count county real reality modern modernness good goodness sad sadness aloof aloofness The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as follows: frutto frutteto canna canneto oliva oliveto quercia querceto For English: song songster songstress art artist artless artful List III PREFIXES nodo (knot): annodare, snodare, risnodare scrivere (write): riscrivere, trascrivere, sottoscrivere, descrivere coprire (cover): scoprire, riscoprire gancio (hook): agganciare, sganciare, riagganciare legare (bind): collegare, rilegare, allegare, slegare bottone (button): abbottonare, sbottonare, riabbottonare macchiare (spot): smacchiare, rismacchiare chiudere (close): socchiudere, schiudere, richiudere, rinchiudere guardare (look at): riguardare, traguardare, sogguardare vedere (see): travedere, rivedere, intravedere perdere (lose): disperdere, sperdere, riperdere mettere (put, place): smettere, emettere, rimettere, permettere, commettere, promettere, sottomettere vincere (overcome): rivincere, avvincere, convincere, stravincere For English: cover: uncover, discover, recover pose: impose, compose, dispose, repose, transpose do: undo, overdo place: displace, replace, misplace submit: remit, commit, omit, permit close: disclose, foreclose, reclose arrange: rearrange, disarrange The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as follows: coprire scoprire ricoprire [17] [18] For English: place displace replace List IV COMPOUND WORDS cartapecora (parchment) cartapesta (papier maché) falsariga (guide) madreperla (mother-of-pearl) melagrana (pomegranate) melarancia (orange) biancospino (hawthorn) ficcanaso (busybody) lavamano (wash-stand) mezzogiorno (noon) passatempo (pastime) ragnatela (cobweb) madrevite (vine) guardaportone (doorkeeper) capoluogo (capital) capomaestro ("boss") capofila (pivot-soldier) capopopolo (demagogue) caposquadra (commodore) capogiro (dizziness) capolavoro (masterpiece) giravolta (whirl) mezzaluna (half-moon) mezzanotte (midnight) palcoscenico (stage) acchiappacani (dog-catcher) cantastorie (story-teller) guardaboschi (forester) lustrascarpe (boot-black) portalettere (letter-carrier) portamonete (pocketbook) portasigari (cigar-case) portalapis (pencil-case) portabandiera (standard bearer) guardaroba (wardrobe) asciugamano (towel) cassapanca (wooden bench) arcobaleno (rainbow) terrapieno (rampart, terrace) bassorilievo (bas-relief) granduca (grand-duke) pianoforte (piano) spazzacamino (chimney-sweep) pettorosso (redbreast) For English: sheepskin cardboard shoestring midnight midday noontime redbreast appletree afternoon moonlight starlight doorknob bedtime daytime [19] springtime flagstaff rainbow workman housekeeper pastime chimneysweep sheepfold barnyard sidewalk snowshoe shoeblack firefly steamboat milkman bathroom streetcar lifelike pocketbook inkwell tablecloth courtyard honeycomb beehive flowerpot buttonhole hallway midway storekeeper horseman masterpiece bookcase The children read one word at a time and try to reproduce it from memory, distinguishing through the two alphabets the two words of which each one is composed: carta pecora bianco spino piano forte spazza camino lava mano For English: moon light work man In the following chart the words are grouped in families. This chart may be used by children who are already well advanced in the identification of the parts of speech. All the words are derived from some other more simple word which is a root and of which the other words, either by suffix or prefix, are made up. All these roots are primitive words which some day the child may look for in a group of derivatives; and when he finds them he will realize that the primitive word is a noun, adjective, or a verb, as the case may be, that it is the word which contains the simplest idea, and so the derivatives may be nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs. On these charts appear various word-families. The teacher is thus spared the trouble of looking them up. Furthermore the child will some day be able to use them by himself. The exercises based on these are still performed with two different alphabets of different color so that the child can tell at a glance which is the root word. WORD-FAMILIES terra (earth): terrazzo, terremoto, terrapieno, atterrare, terreno, terriccio, terricciola, territorio, conterraneo, terreo, terroso, dissotterrare ferro (iron): ferraio, ferriera, ferrata, ferrigno, ferrugginoso, ferrare, sferrare, inferriata soldo (penny): assoldare, soldato, soldatesca, soldatescamente grande (great): ingrandire, grandiosità, grandioso, grandiosamente, grandeggiare scrivere (write): scrittura, scritto, scritturare, scrittore, inscrizione, trascrivere, sottoscrivere, riscrivere beneficio (benefit): beneficare, benefattore, beneficato, beneficenza, beneficamente benedizione (benediction): benedire, benedicente, benedetto, ribenedire felicità (happiness): felice, felicemente, felicitare, felicitazione fiamma (flame): fiammante, fiammeggiante, fiammeggiare, fiammelle, fiammiferi, infiammare bagno (bath): bagnante, bagnino, bagnarola, bagnatura, bagnare, ribagnare freddo (cold): freddolose, infreddatura, freddamente, raffreddore, raffreddare, sfreddare [20]