Julia Clancy-Smitb Charles D. Smith The Modern Middle East and North Africa A H I S T O R Y I N D O C U M E N T S i UNIVERSITY PRESS The Modern Middle East and North Africa A HISTORY IN DOCUMENTS Julia Clancy-Smith Charles D. Smith New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS For our daughter, Elisabeth Anna, and grandson, Miles Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford New York General Editors: Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi Sarah Deutsch New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto Professor of History Duke University With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Carol K. Karlsen Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore Professor of History and Women's Studies South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam University of Michigan © 2014 by Julia Clancy-Smith and Charles D. Smith Robert G. Moeller Professor of History For titles covered by Section 112 of the US Higher Education Opportunity Act, University of California, Irvine please visit www.oup.com/us/he for the latest information about pricing and alternate formats. Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom Professor of History University of California, Irvine Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Cover photo: "Palestine Delegation of Arab Oxford University Press Ladies."This photograph shows a delegation 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 of unnamed Palestinian women, both Muslim and Christian, on October 12,1938 All rights reserved. No part of this publication maybe reproduced, stored in a on the platform at the Lydda Junction of the retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior train line linking Palestine with Egypt.They permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, were traveling to Cairo to attend the "Levant by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organi­ Women's Conference," convened from zation. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be October 193815-18 at the headquarters sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. of the Egyptian Women's Federation, to publicize mounting sociopolitical problems You must not circulate this work in any other form in Palestine under the British Mandate. and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Chaired by the Egyptian leader of the women's rights movement, Mrs. Hoda Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data on file Shaarawi, the conference issued a report, subsequently published as a book whose revenues were used to assist distressed Palestinian families. The image illustrates many of the themes of this volume. Frontispiece: Moslems worshipping the 9780195338270 shrines sacred to Islam, Mecca, Arabia. 9876543 Title Page: Tahrir Square, 9 February 2011. Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper Contents Note on Transliteration ♦ vii JL Between Old and New: What Is a Document ♦ viii Reforming State and Society, How to Read a Document ♦ x c. 1750-1914 ♦ 61 Introduction ♦ 1 Cairo vs. Istanbul: Egyptian and Turkish Reforms and Their Implications ♦ 65 European Imperialism, Visits across the Mediterranean: MENA and European Impressions ofEach Other ♦ 74 c. 1750-1914 ♦ 19 Official and Popular Calls for Reform: Napoleon in Egypt ♦ 22 Tunisia, Iran, Ottoman Turks ♦ 76 Algeria: French Colonization and the Mutual Incomprehension?: Women, Algerian Response ♦ 29 Education, and Public Behavior ♦ 84 American-Ottoman Relations in an Emigration: The Search for Livelihood Imperial Age ♦ 32 Abroad ♦ 94 Anglo-French Justifications of Imperialism: Racial Superiority and Commercial 3 World War I and Its Aftermath, Investments in Egypt and Tunisia ♦ 34 c. 1914-1923 ♦ 97 Zionism: Its Origins and Objectives ♦ 43 Wartime Conditions ♦ 102 Missionary Ventures and Educational Journalism, Truth, and War Reporting ♦ 105 Experiments: European and Middle The Armenian Question ♦ 109 Eastern Feminine Interactions ♦ 44 Promises, Promises: Britain, France, and the World Fairs and Tourism: Imperial Arab Movement *113 Portraits of the Oriental and the Promises to Keep: Britain, Palestine, and the Oriental Response ♦ 48 Zionist Movement ♦ 118 Egypt: British and Egyptian Critiques Postwar Settlements: The Great Powers and oflmperialism ♦ 51 the Middle East ♦ 119__ Iran and The European Powers: Protests and Rebellion ♦ 122 Oil Concessions and Territorial Partitioning ♦ 54 Egyptian Protests ♦ 127 Al-Afghani and Azoury: Muslim 4 Picture Essay: Portrayals: Women, and Arab Christian Rejections of Work, Education, War, and Peace, Indigenous Accommodation to Western Inroads ♦ 57 c. 1800-Present ♦ 137 Sayyid Qutb: Jahiliyyah and Islamic From the Great War to World War II, Liberation ♦ 233 c. 1923-1950 ♦ 153 America and Iran: The Shah and the Islamic Reforms and Their Motivations: Turkey Revolution ♦ 235 and Iran ♦ 157 Yearnings for Love and Home ♦ 237 Living in Two Worlds ♦ 161 Egypt: European Influences and the Unknown Destinies, Definition of Culture ♦ 164 Going to the Movies ♦ 173 c. 1980-Present ♦ 241 North African Experiences with France and Urban Transformations and Ethnic the United States ♦ 175 Interactions: Turkey and Palestine from World War I to 1948 ♦ 181 Germany ♦ 244 The Palestinian Arab Response to the Islam, Women, Clothing, and Identity in Churchill White Paper ♦ 186 France and MENA ♦ 250 Iraqi Jews in the 1930s and 1940s ♦ 194 Israeli-Palestinian Negotiations America and Saudi Arabia—The Oil and Protests ♦ 262 Connection ♦ 198 Afghanistan and Iraq before September 11, 2001 ♦ 266 Struggles for Independence and Al-Qaida, 9/11, and the American New Forms of Political Community, Response: Prisoners, Refugees, and c. 1950-1980 ♦ 203 Human Rights ♦ 272 TVmisia and Egypt Rebel: Dictatorships and Immigrations and Displacements ♦ 207 Nationalism and Cold War Tensions: Egypt, Crony Capitalism ♦ 292 Lebanon, Iran ♦ 211 Algeria’s War of Independence: Torture and Colonial Rule ♦ 216 Glossary ♦ 300 Women, Education, and the Public Timeline ♦ 302 Sphere ♦ 221 Further Reading ♦ 306 Arab-Israeli Conflicts: The 1967 War and Annotated Websites ♦ 309 the Lebanese Civil War ♦ 224 Text Credits ♦ 310 Qaddafi’s Green Book: Path to the Picture Credits ♦ 314 Future? ♦ 228 Index ♦ 315 Note on Transliteration Ihe modem Middle East and North Africa (MENA) includes the Arab lands of the Arabian Peninsula bordered by the Red Sea, Arabian Sea, and Persian Gulf, Iran, Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel [Palestine to 1948], and the countries of Northern Africa bordering the Mediterranean and, in the case of Morocco, the Atlantic Ocean. Consis­ tent transliteration for the history of these regions poses a number of problems because there is no single agreed-on system among scholars. Proper names, place names, and terms come from a range of languages—classical Arabic, dia­ lectal Arabic, Berber, Ottoman Turkish, modem Turkish, Persian, and, in some cases, French. To complicate matters, proper names and place names often came into English or other European languages through different kinds of trans­ literation, which was not consistent and frequently deformed the originals. Therefore, transliteration in this volume is the product of compromise as is true of all published work on MENA. For the most part, a modified version of the transliteration system in the International Journal of Middle East Studies for Arabic, Turkish, and Persian is employed. Standard transliteration symbols are used in documents and document captions only when such symbols are used in the original document in the text. For Arabic, only the ayn (') and hamza (') are used in such cases. Turkish words, such as bey or dey, which refer to Ottoman political offices or titles, are used instead of the more accurate Arabic trans­ literation, bay. If a term, such as the Arabic word for ‘city,” madina, has entered the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) in another variant form, such as medina, then the OED spelling is employed. vii viii THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA What Is a Document? To ,the historian, a document is, quite sim­ ply, any sort of historical evidence. It is a primary source, the raw material of his­ tory. A document may be more than the expected government paperwork, such as a treaty or passport. It is also a letter, diary, will, grocery list, newspaper ar­ ticle, recipe, memoir, oral history, school yearbook, map, chart, architectural plan, poster, musical score, play script, novel, political cartoon, painting, photograph— even an object. Using primary sources allows us not just to read about history, but to read history itself. It allows us to immerse ourselves in the look and feel of an era gone by, to understand its people and their language, Cartoon whether verbal or visual. And it allows us This political cartoon addresses the issue of church and state. It illustrates the Supreme Court's role in balancing the demands of the ist Amendment of the to take an active, hands-on role in (recon­ Constitution and the desires of the religious population. structing history. Using primary sources requires us to use our powers of detection to ferret out the relevant facts and to draw cpnclusions Illustration from them; just as Agatha Christie uses the Illustrations from children's scores in a bridge game to determine the books, such as this alphabet from the New England Primer, identity of a murderer, the historian uses tell us how children were facts from a variety of sources—some, per­ educated and also what the haps, seemingly inconsequential—to build religious and moral values of a historical case. the time were. The poet W. H. Auden wrote that his­ tory was the study of questions. Primary sources force us to ask questions—and then, by answering them, to construct a narrative or an argument that makes sense to us. Moreover, as we draw on the many sources from “the dust-bin of history," we can endow that narrative with character, personality, and texture—all the elements that make history so endlessly intriguing. What Is a Document? ix Treaty l government document such as this 1805 treaty can reveal not only the details of government policy, but also formation about the people who signed it. Here, the Indians' names were written in English transliteration by l.S. officials; the Indians added pictographs to the right of their names. Map A1788 British map of India shows the region prior to British colonization, an indication of the kingdoms and provinces whose ethnic divisions would resurface later in India's history. Object In this fifteenth-century ewer, both the physical materials of brass and silver and the iconic depiction offreaven as a forest display the refinement of the owner, an Egyptian sultan's wife. Objects, along with manuscripts and printed materials, provide evidence about the past. X THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA How to Read as law codes or the proceedings of court cases. Some evidence is pub­ lished, while much may remain in archival form, that is, unpublished. Nonwritten sources include works of art, photographs, posters, architec­ a Document ture, city space, clothing, and diverse objects of material culture. In ad­ dition to collecting and interpreting primary sources, historians consult available secondary sources to learn how other scholars have researched In the course of our daily lives, we all "leave crumbs behind"—bits and pieces of and reconstructed a particular historical topic or time period. evidence regarding what we did or did not Nevertheless, primary sources constitute the raw materials of history do—and ultimately clues about who we writing. In their quest to understand, narrate, and interpret the past, the historian faces major problems and questions: who wrote, composed, or are as individuals and what kind of social universe we inhabit When we use public made the text or object under scrutiny and for what purposes or audi­ transport, a purchased bus, train, or metro ences? What was excised from a text or image and why? How was the ticket indicates where we’ve been and/or text or image received or "read" by different audiences? Is the source where we were heading. An unfortunate "trustworthy," that is, does it approximate some social reality, or was it encounter with a traffic officer while driv­ produced and used to mislead, for example, for propagandistic purposes? ing generates a fine and some paperwork And how did a particular primary source, whatever its form, come down registered with the DMV. Our favorite to us and why was it preserved? foods and drinks show up on grocery store Subject receipts and often on our credit card bills This photograph of Constantinople (or Istanbul; opposite) in the as well. And what we throw away at night in late nineteenth century shows the newly rebuilt Galata Bridge, which the garbage or recycling bins divulges pat­ connected two major urban quarters of the capital of the Ottoman Empire, terns of consumption. Records of checked- the old imperial core and Islamic center, and newer neighborhoods on the out books from the university library are other side of the Golden Horn. Together with written documentation, this revealing; they show the courses in which image can be employed as a primary source for recreating daily life as well we enrolled, what our professors or in­ as investigating historical changes at the level of the state and society. structors think is important for a specific Interpretation discipline, and whether we prefer fiction By analyzing the people, buildings, animals, and objects in the foreground, or nonfiction or both. In the ^aggregate, the historian sees that several modes of transportation existed: foot traffic, societies, religions, cultures, states, and horse-drawn carriages, and small skiffs as well as larger vessels. In addition, civilizations leave behind vast reservoirs we notice that bundles of goods are being transported and that a shop lines of evidence from the past in many and the bridge s left-hand comer, thus this is a place of commerce and trade. complex forms. As is true for individuals, Clothing might yield clues about peoples identity because Constantinople documentation for the history of larger was a multireligious, multicultural, and polyglot city where dress betrayed social bodies or political entities is culled communal belonging. Most of the human bridge traffic appears to be male and wearing some modified version of European costume together from a number of primary sources that his­ with the fez as headgear but one individual (in the left hand comer) torians generally categorize as written or has a turban, suggesting that he is a Muslim dignitary. But how did this unwritten. Recorded evidence ranges from photograph come to be and what meaning was it meant to convey? This population censuses; tax records; diaries; question brings in the Ottoman state and modernization. We can see at the business ledgers; and scientific, religious, far end of Galata Bridge, a large mosque, the "New Mosque" (Yetti Camii) or literary works to monumental inscrip­ whose construction began the late sixteenth century, and other religious tions on built structures. Written evidence buildings. In proximity to these monumental Islamic structures, numerous can be personal, such as letters exchanged Ottoman state or bureaucratic offices, connected to the exercise of power, between family members, or public, such whether local, regional, or imperial, were traditionally found. In the course