ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: THE MINIMUM MEANS OF REPRISAL: CHINA’S SEARCH FOR SECURITY IN THE NUCLEAR AGE. Jeffrey Lewis, Doctor of Philosophy, 2004 Dissertation Directed By: Professor John D. Steinbruner School of Public Policy Among the 5 states authorized under the NPT to possess nuclear weapons, China has the most restrained pattern of deployment: The People’s Republic of China (PRC) operationally deploys about 80 nuclear warheads exclusively for use with land‐based ballistic missiles. Its declaratory doctrine rejects the initiation of nuclear war under any circumstance. The PRC does not maintain tactical nuclear forces of any kind, and its strategic forces are kept off alert, with warheads in storage. This posture has been sustained over time and changes in threat perception, suggesting restraint is the result of choice and not expediency. The apparent implication of the sustained pattern of Chinese restraint implies a distinctly different strategic assessment from that developed by Russia and the US to justify and direct their larger and more actively deployed forces. i As articulated in the 2001 Nuclear Posture Review, the United States seeks credible options for the preventive use of strategic forces. Such options will presumably undermine confidence among Chinese leaders that a small strategic force provides adequate deterrence, and that vulnerability to preemption poses a less significant risk than the loss of control over alert forces. There is no evidence yet of a fundamental revision in the traditional deployment pattern of Chinese strategic forces, perhaps because China is likely to preserve a modest capability sufficient for its minimalist conception of deterrence. If China were subjected to a level of preemptive threat that Beijing judged intolerable, Chinese leaders would likely to reject, at least initially, the systematic emulation of US deployment patterns. Although the inner deliberations of China’s leadership are only barely perceptible, patterns in Chinese defense investments, strategic force deployments, and arms control behavior suggest China would consider asymmetric responses that targeted the vulnerable command, control and intelligence (C2I) systems essential to preventive operations. This dissertation attempts a systematic examination of Chinese policy statements and diplomatic actions for two purposes: • To test the plausibility of China’s apparent strategic logic against the conflicting expectations of prevailing US assessments. • To provide guidance for shaping both the specific security relationship with China and global security arrangements in general. ii THE MINIMUM MEANS OF REPRISAL CHINA’S SEARCH FOR SECURITY IN THE NUCLEAR AGE By Jeffrey Glenn Lewis Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy 2004 Advisory Committee: Professor John D. Steinbruner, Chair Professor I.M. Destler Professor Steve Fetter Professor George Quester, Deans’ Representative Professor Emeritus Thomas C. Schelling iii © Copyright by Jeffrey Glenn Lewis 2004 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe a great debt to the members of my committee, chaired by John Steinbruner, who read and re‐read countless drafts and chapters that might have been better proofread. This includes I.M. “Mac” Destler, who kindly agreed to serve as an alternate committee member. After two years as a University Fellow, I was fortunate to complete my dissertation on a graduate assistantship in the Advanced Methods of Cooperative Security Program with the Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland (CISSM). CISSM provided a rich intellectual community, including my colleagues Nancy Gallagher, Stacy Okutani, Chuck Thornton and Zhao Wuwen. The Advanced Methods program is generously supported by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. On several trips to China, Gregory Kulacki of the Union of Concerned Scientists kept me out of trouble, focused on the facts and even discovered a new source on the history of the Chinese nuclear weapons program. Thanks, man. Many other colleagues provided help, ranging from comments on draft chapters to research materials to simple encouragement including Wade Boese, Kris Bergerson, Jeremy Bratt, Jonah Czerwinski, Jonathan Dean, Nancy Gallagher, Lisbeth Gronlund, Laura Grego, Adam Grissom, Theresa Hitchens, Mike Horowitz, Iain Johnston, Paul Kerr, Michael Krepon, Li Bin, ii Joseph Logan & Ronya Anna, Marty Malin, Clay Moltz, Götz Neuneck, Dan Pittman, Todd Sechser, Rob Sprinkle, Nina Tannewald, David Wright and Logan Wright. I also want to thank those Chinese colleagues, who must remain unnamed, for discussing freely a subject that’s not necessarily a great idea to discuss at all. The manuscript was edited by Laura Susan Jacobs, a friendly but firm grammarian who occasionally invites strangers over for grilled cheese. All of these people above did their best to save me from committing countless errors; any that remain are mine alone. Finally, thanks to Jennifer Ober, the love of my life, and my parents, John and Darlene Lewis. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................ii Table of Contents..................................................................................................................iv List of Figures .......................................................................................................................vi Chapter 1: The Minimum Means of Reprisal.....................................................................1 How Much is Enough in Theory?...................................................................................3 Evident Facts From and Apparent Implications of the Chinese Case......................12 Scope and Purpose..........................................................................................................21 Chapter 2: Chinese Strategic Forces, 2004........................................................................28 Chinese Strategic Delivery Vehicles..............................................................................29 Command and Control Arrangements.........................................................................39 Operational Doctrine.......................................................................................................45 Proposed Modernization Plan.......................................................................................51 Conclusion........................................................................................................................59 Chapter 3: Chinese Strategic Forces, Evolution and Design..........................................60 The Evolution of Chinese Strategic Forces...................................................................61 1955‐1967: High Yield Nuclear Weapons and Long‐Range Missiles...................61 1967‐1981: China’s First Generation of Strategic Systems.....................................68 After 1981: China’s Second Generation of Strategic Systems...............................76 Principles of Design.........................................................................................................86 Chinese Nuclear Forces are « Defensive »...............................................................87 Chinese Nuclear Forces are « Limited »...................................................................89 Chinese Nuclear Forces are « Effective ».................................................................90 Chinese Nuclear Forces are « Safe ».........................................................................94 Continuity Over Time.................................................................................................95 A Note on Organizational Bias..................................................................................96 Conclusion........................................................................................................................99 Chapter 4: Chinese Participation in the Conference on Disarmament.......................100 Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty..................................................................105 Fissile Material Cut‐Off Treaty....................................................................................119 Conclusion......................................................................................................................127 Chapter 5: Competing Explanations for Chinese Arms Control Behavior................128 Skeptical Explanations for China’s Participation......................................................131 Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty..............................................................134 Fissile Material Cut‐Off Treaty................................................................................144 iv Toward an Alternative Explanation............................................................................156 Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty..............................................................159 Fissile Material Cut‐Off Treaty................................................................................165 Conclusion......................................................................................................................170 Chapter 6: The Nuclear Posture Review and the Logic of Restraint..............................173 Implications of the Nuclear Posture Review.............................................................174 Missile Defense..........................................................................................................177 Non‐nuclear Strike....................................................................................................181 Enhancing Deterrence...............................................................................................183 Possible Chinese Responses.........................................................................................185 Crisis Stability Concerns...............................................................................................199 Conclusion......................................................................................................................207 Chapter 7: A Legal Undertaking to Prevent an Arms Race in Outer Space..............209 Chinese Working Papers..............................................................................................212 2000‐2001: CD/1606 & CD/1645...............................................................................215 2002‐2003: CD/1679 & the Unofficial Annex.........................................................219 Analyzing China’s Arms Control Proposals.............................................................223 Appropriate Forum and Agenda Items.................................................................223 Scope of Obligations.................................................................................................228 Verification.................................................................................................................230 Conclusion......................................................................................................................235 Chapter 8: China’s Search for Security in the Nuclear Age.........................................236 Assessing Chinese Strategic Decisions.......................................................................238 Implications for American Policy................................................................................244 Appendix: Selected Documents Submitted by the Chinese Delegation to the Conference on Disarmament, 1985‐2003.........................................................................250 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1‐1: A Model of Enough Figure 2‐1: Operationally Deployed Strategic Warheads (as of January 1, 2003) Figure 2‐2: Estimated PRC Ballistic Missile Deployments Figure 2‐3: IC Estimates of Chinese ICBM Deployments by 2015 Figure 2‐4: Past IC Projections of Chinese ICBM Threat Figure 3‐1: DIA Projection of Selected Chinese Strategic Forces, 1984‐1994 Figure 3‐2: Chinese Nuclear Forces, 1965‐2005 Figure 4‐1: Chinese Nuclear Tests, 1987‐1996 Figure 5‐1: Purposes and Plausible Achievements for Chinese Nuclear Testing at Various Yields Figure 6‐1: Missile Defense Appropriations 1985‐2004 Figure 6‐2: Notional US Missile Defense Architectures Figure 6‐3: Selected Programs Supporting the Non Nuclear Strike Figure 6‐4: General Procedures for Weapons Development Figure 6‐5: Cold War Alerts to DEFCON 3 or Above Figure 7‐1: Confidence Building Measures in the Hague Code Figure 7‐2: Obligations and Definitions in Selected Chinese Working Papers Submitted to the CD vi Chapter 1: The Minimum Means of Reprisal My attitude was clear throughout. For more than a century, imperialists had frequently bullied, humiliated and oppressed China. To put an end to this situation, we had to develop sophisticated weapons such as the guided missile and the atomic bomb, so that we would have the minimum means of reprisal if attacked by the imperialist with nuclear weapons. Marshall Nie Rongzhen, Memoirs1 Among the 5 states authorized under the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty to possess nuclear weapons, China has the most restrained pattern of deployment: The People’s Republic of China (PRC) deploys just 80 or so operational warheads exclusively for use with land‐based ballistic missiles. Its declaratory doctrine rejects the initiation of nuclear war under any circumstance. The PRC does not maintain tactical nuclear forces of any kind, and its strategic forces are kept off alert, with warheads in storage. That this posture has been sustained over time and changes in threat perception suggest restraint is the result of choice and not expediency. China has long had the economic and technical capacity to build larger forces. Chinese deployment patterns have clearly been subjected to review, alteration, and modification. The apparent implication of the sustained pattern of Chinese restraint implies a distinctly different strategic assessment from that developed by Russia and the US to justify and direct their larger and more actively deployed forces. The Chinese assessment can be summarized with two statements: 1 Nie Rongzhen, Inside the Red Star: The Memoirs of Marshal Nie Rongzhen, Zhong Rongyi, translator (Beijing, New World Press, 1988). 1
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