1 The Miami Ethnic Archipelago Ira M. Sheskin University ofMiami It's an exurb of New York and a suburb of Havana. It's the only place in the United States where one must look north to find The South. It's a city which contains more nationalities that the average American has~, never heard ofthan most othermajor American cities. It's anarchipelago of ethnic groups representing islands from Manhattan to Aruba, from Cuba to Trinidad. It's an archipelago of ethnic groups from the urban island of Mexico City to the urban island of Panama City, from the urban island of Caracas to the urban island of Valparaiso. And, as in other American cities, Asians are a growing minority. All of this is grafted upon a landscape which was originally that of the native American. And this grafting via immigration was mostly responsible for much ofthe 18.6% growth of Dade's population in the 1980s. In 1980, Dade contained 407,000 persons of Cuban ancestry, 171,000 English, 131,000 German, 125,000 Irish, 116,000 "other Hispanic," 57,000 Italians, 49,000 Poles, 47,000 French, 44,000 Russians, and 11,000 Hungarians. By the late 1980s, the religious breakdown included 38% Hispanic Catholics, 9% non-Hispanic Catholics, 11% Jews, and 42% Protestants and others. All of this caused Tom Morganthau (1988) to conclude that Miami has experienced "the most abrupt demographic upheaval of any city on the North American continent. In fact, no metropolitan area in the US has a larger percentage of foreign-born residents. Miami leads all other major US metropolitan areas with 49% 1An earlier version of this paper was presented at a conference entitled Ethnic Minorities and Multiculturalism: Dade County's Tomor row, An Ethnic Dialogue held at the Historical Museum of Southern Florida, December 10, 1990. The conference was sponsored by the Judaic Studies Program at the University of Miami, the Dade County Cultural Affairs Council, MOSAIC, Inc., the SouthernJewishHistorical Society, and the College ofArts and Sciences at the UniversityofMiami in association with the Historical Museum of Southern Florida and the Florida Department of State. 40 The Florida Geographer of its population being Hispanic. With 21% Black population, Miami is among the top 10 metropolitan areas. The 11% Jewish is among the highest for any USmetropolitanarea; the 22%Jewish inthe three-county South Florida area (Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach) is the highest in ,the country. And it's all put together in a way that is uniquely Sunbelt, uniquely a function of the role of Miami as the gateway to Latin America, and uniquely Miami. Thereare Hispanicneighborhoods, and Black neighbor hoods, and Jewish neighborhoods. There's a Little Havana and a Little Managua and a Little Haiti. And on the radio air waves, an "Anglo" cannot find six AM Englishlanguage radio stationsfor the sixbuttonson the average car radio. But one can find talk shows in Spanish and in Creole and music shows oriented toward Jewish Miami and toward Caribbean Miami. Like an archipelago, these groups often form islands and island groups within the Miami metropolitan area. For although many organizations exist whose goal is to promote community harmony, each ethnic group isoften an island onto itself. These ethnic groups are notjustresidential ly segregated in geographic space, they are segregated in social space and in economic space and political space as well. And they meet, often on tenuous terms, in certain common spaces like shopping centers and work places and schools. For some groups, their ties to elsewhere are often strongerthan their ties to the greater Miami community. Even for people who have lived in Miami for ten or twenty years, "home" is in Havana or New York or Philadelphia. Almost every New York Met and New York Yankee game canbe heard on South Florida radio stations. New York isoften $99 and three to four hours away. But New York can also be found at South Florida shopping malls which are now replete with stores (Macy's and Bloomingdale'sand Loehmann's andcountlessothers)that have followed their northern clientele to the Sunbelt. Any many Cubans still harbor ~flopes of returning to a free Cuba; many from Central America may l return to their troubled lands when they settle down. Home iselsewhere to the point that in the Hispanic community, candidates at the municipal 41 Sheskin Miami Ethnic Archipelago level campaignon the extent of theiranti-communist fervor. Political ads about Jewish candidates will tout or question their commitment to the Jewish community or their stance on Israel. It is as if each island or island group is occupying the same ocean, is separated from the other islands in its ocean by great expanses of water, ! and is often more closely tied to and concerned with events in other oceans than with interacting with other islands in its own ocean. And like many archipelagos, intra-island strife exists. Groups which "outsiders" view as homogenous have their own internal differences. "Hispanics" include Cubans, Nicaraguans, Puerto Ricans, Central Americans, and others. "Blacks" include the American born, Bahami ans, Jamaicans, and other. Jews include those with eastern European heritage (Ashkenazic) and Cuban and other Spanishheritage (Sephardic) and are also "divided" along lines based upon levels of religiosity. The Hispanic Island Group Hispanics represent the largest and fastest-growing island group in the archipelago. In 1960, only 5% of Dade's populationwas Hispanic. This percentage grew to 23% in 1970 because of the influx of refugees from Cuba; to 36% in 1980 (581,000); and to 49% (953,000 persons) by 1990, an increase of 64%(372,000). Concentrating on the 1980-1990 period (Table 1), note that 215,000 Hispanics migrated into Dade County from other parts of the United States, while 102,000 migrated out, for a net domestic migration of 113,000. The fact that 215,000 Hispanics migrated into Dade County from other parts of the United States is consistent with conventional wisdom that has held that, in spite of US government efforts to settle refugees in various parts of the United States, many return to Dade County. Yet, the fact that 102,000 migrated out of the County may be indicative oftheir assimilation in American society and rising socioeco nomic status. In addition, 224,000 Hispanics moved into Dade County from foreign countries, about the same as the 215,000 who moved i~­ from other parts of the United States. Finally, note that the Hispanic 42 The Florida Geographer population was increased by 110,000 births during the decade and was diminished by 70,000 deaths, for a natural increase of 40,000. And as the Hispanic populationhas grown, it has also diversified. While the original influx of Cubans in the early 1960's was an upper and 'middleclass populationescaping from aCommunist regime, the 125,000 "Marielitos" who arrived in 1980 were, for the most part, considerably poorerand included significant numbers of Black Cubans and a minority of persons of questionable backgrounds (criminals, the mentally insane, etc.). Black Cubans are residentiallysegregated from White Cubans and, when the Marielitos arrived in 1980, the existing Cuban community reacted with mixed emotions. And Black Cubans do not show much affinity with American Blacks, sharing only skin color and little else. Thus, when asked about race in the 1980 Census, of the 69,000 Dade Countians who classified themselves in the "Other races" column, 90% were Hispanic. And while half the Cuban American population lives in Miami, the growth of the Hispanic population in recent years has also been sparked by refugees from Central America, the Caribbean, and South America, such that, by 1990, only 59% of Hispanics were Cubans. This percent age was 70% in 1980 and 75% in 1970. (Note, as shown below, however, that nationwide, Cubans are only 5% of the Hispanic popula tion.) After the 564,000 Cubans, the second largest Hispanic group (74,000) (8% of Hispanics) is the Nicaraguans, whose numbers have increased significantly since the 1980assassinationof long-time dictator Anastasio Somoza. This group shows some geographical concentration in the west Dade municipality of Sweetwater. And there are also 73,000 Puerto Ricans (8% of Hispanics) (who are spatially concentrated in the Wynwood neighborhood), 54,000 Colombians (6% of Hispanics) and 23,000 Mexicans (2% of Hispanics). Another 165,000 come from a variety of Latin American countries including Honduras, EI Salvador, l{:ostaRica, Panama, Guatemala, Venezuela, and Peru. All these groups have contributed to the ethnic diversity of the Hispanic island group. Each group has its own traditions and in some cases, the groups bring 43 Sheskin Miami Ethnic Archipelago along with them some interesting melding of traditions; hence there are Peruvian Chinese Restaurants, Cuban Chinese restaurants, and Jewish book stores that sell Hebrew books with Spanish translations. Thus, the Hispanic group is perhaps the most nebulous "island group ing" in the archipelago. As noted in a column in the Miami Herald: "Hispanic" ethnic solidarity is fragile because it is a political creation rather than one based on the real experiences ofthe groups so labeled. Thedifferences far exceed the similarities, and they encompass not only differences in national origin, but in length of residence in the United States and in the history that brought each group here (Partes, 1990). TheHispanicpopulationis, particularlycompared withBlacks, relatively well integrated into Dade County. Excepting the mostly Black areas, Hispanics are found throughoutthe metropolitanarea. Nevertheless, two areas contain significantly greater concentrations of Hispanics: 1) the Little Havana area, centered on SW 8th Street (Tamiami Trail-US 41), within the city ofMiami, and 2) the city ofHialeah. The City ofMiami is more than 63%Hispanic; Hialeah is 88%Hispanic. And the Hispanic island groups have made an indelible impression on Miami, one that has irretrievably changed the area not only socially, but politically and economically. By 1982, Miami had more Hispanic-owned businesses (about 25,000) than any other US city save Los Angeles and had higher gross receipts from Hispanic businesses than any other US city. Ithas changed the area as it is perceived from the rest ofthe nation, for Miami is now known for its Hispanic population. And the landscape reflects this influence in terms of architecture, street signs, and foods. According to South Florida magazine: Miami is the only city in the United States where a man could be born, grow up, get married, get a job and become a millionaire, all in Spanish. 44 The Florida Geographer Table 1 Components ofPopulation Change Dade County 1980-1990 Non-His- panic Blacks Hispanics Whites Total 1980 Census 282,000 581,000 775,945 1,626,000 + Births 95,000 110,000 78,075 280,000 - Deaths 25,000 70,000 79,425 173,000 Natural Increase 70,000 40,000 -1,350 107,000 Domestic + Immigration 38,000 215,000 250,795 500,000 - Emigration 75,000 102,000 415,655 590,000 Net Migration 37,000 113,000 -164,860 -90,000 Foreign + Immigration 90,000 224,000 710 310,000 - Emigration 2,000 5,000 9,105 16,000 Net Migration 88,000 219,000 8395 294,000 Total Net Mi- gration 51,000 332,000 -173,255 204,000 Total Change 121,000 372,000 -173,255 311,000 1990Census 403,000 953,000 601,340 1,937,000 Percent 20.8% 49.2% 31.0% 100.0% Source: OliverKerr, Dade CountyPlanning Department 45 Sheskin Miami Ethnic Archipelago Many Hispanics have only limited abilities in English. In the 1980 Census, 33% of Hispanics indicated that they could speak English well or very well. 29% could not speak English at all. 45% indicated that they could not speak English at all or not well and 97%did not speak English at home. In 1990, of those who spoke Spanish at horne, 56% • did not speak English "very well. " This has led to significant "back lash" against Hispanics as well as "white flight" to Broward and Palm Beach Counties to the north. But the bilingual abilities, the business experience, and the cultural milieu that have accompanied the immigra tion of the Hispanic population has played a major role in the develop ment of tourism, international trade, finance, and banking. Thus, by the early 1980's, Miami was second only to New York as a center of international banking (Mohl, 1982). It should also be noted that Hispanics in Dade County are unlike the Mexicans and Puerto Ricans that constitute most of the Hispanic population of the United States (Table 2). Cubans are older than other Hispanicsbecauseoftheirrelatively low fertility. Many more households contain married couples than is the case for Puerto Ricans. Cubans also have much higher levels of income and education, and, consequently, much lower levels of unemployment and much lower percentages of families below the poverty level. Thus, the Hispanic population is a middle-class entrepreneurial group that, because of its preference for the Spanish language, has developed itsown "enclave" economy. Retail outletsexist inwhich customers must speak Spanish to interact with the sales help. Thus, Anglos and Blacks must speak Spanish to be hired. This further isolates the three communi ties. 46 The Florida Geographer Table 2 Hispanic Demographic Comparison Cubans Mexicans Puerto Ricans Median Age 38.7 23.9 24.9 %Married Couples 78.1% 74.4% 51.6% Median Family Income $27,294 $19,968 $15,185 I Years ofEducation 12.4 10.8 12.0 Unemployment Rate 3.1% 9.8% 9.2% % Professional (Males) 23.7% 10.3% 15.1% % Families Below 13.8% 25.5% 37.9% Poverty Level %of US Hispanic 5% 62% 13% Population Source: usCensusBureau(March, 1988). TheHispanic Populationinthe UnitedStates. The Black Island Group Miami has the dubious distinction of being one of only two American cities to experience a race riot since the late 1960s. And, unlike most other US cities, Blacks in Dade County include "American Blacks," Black Cubans, Haitians, Bahamians, and Jamaicans and other Caribbean islanders.Tensions among these different groups are strained and Dunn notes that, while physical confrontations between native Blacks and Haitians are over, considerable tension still exists between the groups (Yeaney and Castro, 1990). Blacks currently constitute about 21% (403,000) of the Dade County ~opulation, having increased from 15% in 1960 and from 17% (282,000) in 1980. Much of the recent growth has resulted from an influx of Haitians as well as Black Cubans and other Caribbean Blacks. Unlike 47 Sheskin Miami Ethnic Archipelago many other cities, there is not one, but rather many, Black areas. Unlike the Hispanic communities which are almost all middle (Miami, Hialeah) or upper income (Coral Gables, Kendall), most Blacks reside in lower (Liberty City/Brownsville, Overtown) or middle (Carol City, Richmond Heights) income communities. Thus, while considerable progress has, been made on some fronts by the Black community and a middle class has emerged, Blacks clearly lag well behind the Cuban community in economicdevelopment(Rose, 1989). As notedabove, particularlyduring the earlierCubanmigrations, Cubanmigrants to the USwere "positively selected" from the Cuban population, that is they had considerably higher levels ofeducation and income than was the case for the average Cuban. Second, many argue, Cuban and other Hispanic migrants have been the recipients of significant federal government aid as political refugees. Thus, Dunn (p. 10-3) argues that: They (Blacks) have not increased their numbers interms of political representation except in the state legislature, have only slightly closed the income gap between themselves and other ethnic groups and remain virtually locked out of the financial boom that has hit the area. They receive no real benefit, for example, from the new Miami Arena, the expanding international banking phenomena, the increase in international trade, the Orange Bowl festivities and so forth. The result hasbeen a growing cynicism among Blacks that they have no place in an increasingly Hispanic community. Inner city Dade County Black communities have been hit hard by drugs, crime, and fleeing businesses. In part, these conditions led to and were further exacerbated by the 1980 acquittal of the police officers who beat insurance salesman Arthur McDuffie to death, the 1980 conviction of Black leader Johnny Jones, the 1981 indictment of Black Judge Alcee Hastings, and the killing of Nevell Johnson in an Overtown video game arcade in 1982. In each case, the Black community viewed these incidents as injustices against Blacks and/or as instances where persons, weretreated more harshly by thejusticesystembecause they were Black. This led to rioting in 1980 in Liberty City, Overtown, and other Black 48 The Florida Geographer communities and to rioting in Overtown in 1982. And again in 1989, after the shooting of a Black by a Hispanic officer (Lozano), three days of rioting in Overtown preceded the 1989 Super Bowl game in Miami. In early 1990, many feared further rioting if the Hispanic officer was .acquitted (he was found guilty ofmanslaughter). The geographic pattern of income in the Black community reflects the desire of Blacks, as their income rises, to move out of inner city areas to the suburbs. Thus, the middle income Black areas are almost all suburban. Some middle income Blacks remain in the inner city areas as a way to show solidarity with the Black community. Dunn concludes that: The Blackmiddle and professional class ismanaging and may be progressing well. To be sure, most Blacks in Dade County are not poorand are no more subjectto the crime and violence of the inner city than are whites or Hispanics. The removal ofracial barriers in housingand in many areas of employment (especially in the public sector where aninordinate number of Blacks work), has resulted in a gradual closing of the income gap for this group if not for Blacks as a whole. In spite ofthese somewhat positive comments, during the 1980's, while 50,000 Blacks moved into Dade County from other parts ofthe country, 72,000left, for a net migration ofminus 22,000 in the 1980s. The Black population of Dade County grew primarily because of the immigration of90,000 from foreign countries (chiefly Haiti) and ofa natural increase of 70,000. The Haitians After the so-called "American Blacks," the largest Black group is the Haitians. Haitians constituted only about 5% (14,000) of the 282,000 Blacks in Dade County in 1980. By 1990, almost one in four (95,000 of t403,000) Dade County Blacks was Haitian. Many of these people, perhaps 50-75,000 arrived between 1977 and 1981, often aboard rickety boats. Many came with relatively low skill levels and with little more 49