Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Graduate Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 2012 The Massacre at Paris and the rhetoric of Anglo- French politics in the 1590s Hayley Coble Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at:https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd Recommended Citation Coble, Hayley, "The Massacre at Paris and the rhetoric of Anglo-French politics in the 1590s" (2012).Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 12299. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/12299 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please [email protected]. The Massacre at Paris and the rhetoric of Anglo-French politics in the 1590s by Hayley Coble A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Major: English (Literature) Program of Study Committee: Linda Shenk, Major Professor Michael Mendelson Kathy Hickok Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 2012 Copyright © Hayley Coble, 2012. All rights reserved. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION iii CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER TWO. "IN HONOUR OF OUR GOD AND COUNTRY'S GOOD": NAVARRE AS A NEO-STOIC KING AND THE CONTEMPORARY ANGLO- FRENCH DIPLOMACY OF REASON 15 CHAPTER THREE. "I DAILY WIN WITH WORDS": GUISE'S RHETORICAL CONTROL AND THE POLITICS OF PERFORMANCE 54 CHAPTER FOUR. "ARGUMENTUM TESTIMONII EST INARTIFICIALE": THE RELIGIO-POLITICAL LANGUAGE IN THE RAMUS SCENE 101 CHAPTER FIVE. CONCLUSION 136 WORKS CITED 141 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 146 iii For Kit Marlowe. 1 CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION When Christopher Marlowe penned The Massacre at Paris, England had recently sent her sons and supplies to aid the Protestant rebellion in France, tying the consciousness of her people to the wars on the continent. As quartos covering the French wars flooded the printers and tales of Henri IV's bravery became increasingly sensationalized, Marlowe's play undoubtedly captivated his audience. The play generated much revenue in its early performances and was resurrected several times before the turn of the century due to a prolonged interest in current events in France. When the French wars came to stalemate in late 1592, Henri IV found himself endlessly pressured by the Catholic League to convert to Catholicism as a solution to the constant religion-based civil wars that had plagued France for half a century. As Henri increasingly looked as though he might capitulate, England nervously awaited the conclusion to the wars. Because this current crisis in Anglo-French relations was at the forefront of English minds, aspects of political stress naturally weave throughout the play. An examination of The Massacre at Paris reveals much about English attitudes towards the wars in France, from Protestant propaganda to the veneration of Henri IV. A recent rise in interest in literature's role in transnational politics creates a wonderful opportunity for studying The Massacre at Paris. The play is steeped in references to the political atmosphere of the mid to late 1580s and early 1590s, particularly in correlation with Anglo-French diplomacy. More than any other surviving play of the period, The Massacre directly addresses current events in France. However, little scholarship has addressed the play in terms of its relation to transnational politics; most often it is dismissed as little more 2 than Protestant propaganda. My thesis will show that even though the play does maintain a propagandistic bent, Marlowe utilized the rhetoric of Anglo-French diplomacy in order to make a statement on current political affairs. Because of dramatic works' ability to retain their role as unreal, plays could often comment on transnational policies and political moves made by the government without worrying about the consequences. Marlowe's knowledge of transnational political affairs during his lifetime was extensive, as he is often considered to have been a spy in Sir Francis Walsingham's intelligence operation to protect Elizabeth I. Because the play spans a great length of time, from the wedding of Navarre and Marguerite de Valois and the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572 to Henri III's assassination in 1589, Marlowe is able to comment on past events as well as on current ones and provide possible solutions to the increasingly strained relationship between England and the French Protestant forces. Marlowe's Massacre, though it acts partially as a history play, is heavily influenced by the political turmoil in contemporary France and England's involvement in the warfare. Due to her own national interest in a Protestant France, England had supported Henri de Navarre, the appointed leader of the Protestant cause and renowned Neo-Stoic, throughout the mid to late 1580s. After Henri's succession in 1589 France remained predominately Catholic, and the king found himself unable even to enter Paris. Elizabeth supported the Protestant Henri IV's monarchy to solidify an alliance against the forces of Catholic Spain by sending money and troops, making the French king akin to a Protestant hero in England. Nevertheless, tensions were high between the two countries, particularly during the probable time of Marlowe's composition of The Massacre and its subsequent early performances due 3 to the pressure put on Henri from the Catholic League to convert. Elizabeth however was only interested in supporting Henri's causes as long as he was willing to help defend England from Spain, and she feared that Henri would abandon England in exchange for Spanish support. How the crisis would conclude was a major concern to Elizabeth and her people, and this anxiety becomes implicit in the play. In my thesis, I will discuss Marlowe's use of rhetorical styles and strategies that reflect the political turmoil of the French Civil Wars as well as the contemporary problems in Anglo-French affairs. Often the words that characters use and the ways in which they use them reflect not only their political ideologies but their religious ones, and sometimes their educational views as well. I will be examining three different spheres of Anglo-French politics in the late 1580s and early 90s to show their representation throughout The Massacre at Paris: the shared political rhetoric between Henri IV and Elizabeth I in the form of Neo- Stoicism, the politics of performance through the character of the staged Duc de Guise, and the political rhetoric of education in relation to the Sorbonne and Ramistic logic. Through this approach, I will illustrate how Marlowe's play not only critiques the events of the long French Civil Wars and the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre itself, but how it reflects the current political situation between Protestant England and war-torn France and offers possible solutions to the rising tension between the two nations through various philosophies depicted in these political spheres. By analyzing Marlowe's use of rhetoric, I will show how religio-political lines are drawn in the play in order to coincide with the contemporary political milieu. 4 Literature Review Much of the scholarship written about The Massacre at Paris has been harsh, viewing the play as little more than propaganda. Marlowe's Massacre, however, while it has been dismissed by many, has also been suggested by some critics to have particular strengths. Bruce Ambler Nicholson's dissertation Marlowe's Mighty Massacre views the play as one worthy of equal status to the rest of the Marlowe canon. Throughout the work, Nicholson claims that Marlowe uses satire to critique both Protestants and Catholics. Nicholson defends this claim by showing the often seemingly equivocating personality of Navarre as well as Marlowe's ambiguous portrayal of Guise. "Dido, Queen of Carthage and The Massacre at Paris" by Sara Munson Deats from The Cambridge Companion to Christopher Marlowe also gives a broad overview of scholarship on the play and evaluates The Massacre as important for students and scholars of Marlowe. In her article, Deats suggests an approach used in Renaissance pedagogy of arguing on multiple sides of a question in order to situate the play in an interesting new light. This kind of rhetorical evaluation of the play highlights its strengths, and adds depth to the characters of Navarre, Guise, and Anjoy (later Henri III). In my thesis, I will take the broader historical lens of the civil wars in France and apply it directly to Marlowe's play. Knowledge of the political milieu in which Marlowe composed the play is important to our understanding of The Massacre; the play's commentary on contemporary real-life heroes and villains suggests that Marlowe had a very clear concept in mind when developing his characters. Although there has been criticism on Marlowe's sources for The Massacre at Paris, nothing has been written thus far on how the drama itself goes about emulating the political atmosphere of the French Civil Wars in terms 5 of foreign policy. My thesis will establish the connections between the diplomacy implemented by Elizabeth in her discourse with France in correlation with the rhetoric used in the play. The play acts as propaganda in many respects, but it is rather artfully rendered propaganda. Rhetorical strategies utilized by characters like Henri de Navarre exemplify the legends that the characters had become and cast their personalities as either good or bad depending on how they use language. The way in which Marlowe utilizes those words to allude to pedagogical and philosophical approaches practiced by Catholics and Protestants during the French Civil Wars suggests a definite plan for the development of the characters and the plot. Marlowe's use of rhetorical devices and common stereotypes of historical characters make The Massacre at Paris a play that would have enjoyed much success with an Elizabethan audience well-versed in the political turmoil of the time. The Massacre at Paris has had its share of scholarly attention regarding the suggestion of sodomy in the court of Henri III. Since sodomy was a crime often associated with political transgression, the language of politics is deeply embedded in the characters of Henri III and his mignons, and is often compared with the relationship between Gaveston and Edward in Edward II. The recent article by Jeffrey Rufo, "Marlowe's Minions: Sodomitical Politics in Edward II and The Massacre at Paris" is a fair example of the type of work often done on Henri III's politics; because these articles focus primarily on homoeroticism in the political sphere, Henri III is often compared with Marlowe's Edward II. Much critical discussion has centered on Edward II for the same reasons. The play is inherently political, and therefore makes for good conversation on the concept of monarchy. Likewise, The 6 Massacre is a play political by nature, especially in regards to the personal relationships between characters. Dr. Faustus has also been read from a political perspective. Like The Massacre, Faustus brings religion to the forefront, and many critics have viewed the play as religiously subversive. Just as many have commented on the play's nature as being either pro or anti-Protestant; although there is significant anti-Catholic imagery, Faustus portrays a dislike for Protestantism as well. The same religious problem plays a major role in The Massacre at Paris, but connections made by scholars between the French politics in The Massacre at Paris and contemporary English interests in France are rare and have thus far been only examined from a historical perspective as opposed to a political one. One character who has garnered some attention in scholarship on the play in terms of politics is Catherine de Medici. The Queen Mother of France plays a significant role in furthering Guise's villainous plans in The Massacre by giving him money and even vowing to slay her own children if they get in the way of the Catholic cause. In her article "The Woman in Black: The Image of Catherine de Medici from Marlowe to Queen Margot," Elaine Kruse posits that Marlowe purposefully paints Catherine as the "black queen" in order to subtly praise Elizabeth. Kruse also acknowledges that the very opposite could be true as well, however; Marlowe's dark portrayal of Catherine could also be damaging to Elizabeth, who often portrayed herself as mother of her country, having no heirs of her own. Katherine Crawford's article "Catherine de Médicis and the Performance of Political Motherhood" addresses Catherine's use of political power in a historical sense. In her sketch of Catherine, Crawford shows how the Queen Mother manipulated the politics of her country through emphasis of her role as mother and widow. Catherine wielded considerable power for a long