ANIMAL BASED ECONOMY IN TROIA AND THE TROAS DURING THE MARITIME TROY CULTURE (C. 3000-2200 BC.) AND A GENERAL SUMMARY FOR WEST ANATOLIA Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie der Geowissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen PART I TEXT vorgelegt von Can Yümni GÜNDEM aus Adana/Türkei 2010 Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 19. 01. 2010 Dekan: Prof. Dr. Peter Grathwohl 1. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Dr. Hans Peter Uerpmann 2. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Nicholas J. Conard EIDESSTATTLICHE VERSICHERUNG Hiermit versichere ich, dass die vorliegende Arbeit mit dem Titel „ Animal Based Economy in Troia and the Troas during The Maritime Troy Culture (c. 3000-2200 BC.) and a General Summary for West Anatolia “ selbstständig und ohne Benutzung anderer als der von mir angegebenen Hilfsmittel verfasst habe. Alle Stellen, die wortgetreu oder sinngemäß aus anderen Veröffentlichungen entnommen sind, wurden als solche kenntlich gemacht. Diese Arbeit hat noch keine anderen Stellen zum Zwecke der Erlangung eines Doktor-Grades vorgelegt. Tübingen, 2010 (Can Yümni Gündem) 2 This dissertation is dedicated to my beloved aunt Handan Sezen (†), to my dear pal Horst Trossbach (†) and to my wonderful family Fatma Bengü, Suavi, Ali, Meltem and Almira Ece 3 Content Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................17 Summary.................................................................................................................................18 Zusammenfassung..................................................................................................................20 1. Introduction........................................................................................................................22 1.1. Research Aims...............................................................................................................23 2. The Maritime Troy Culture and the Early Bronze Age in Anatolia.............................29 2.1. The Maritime Troy Culture...........................................................................................29 2.2. The Early Bronze Age in Anatolia and the role of Troy...............................................30 2.3. Development of the West Anatolian Cultures and EBA I............................................31 2.3.1. Transition Period....................................................................................................32 2.3.2. EBA I/early Troy I.................................................................................................33 2.3.3. Early Bronze Age II: Middle-late Troy I and Troy IIa..........................................34 2.3.4. Early Bronze Age III/Troy IIb – III and IV...........................................................36 2.4. Trade during the EBA in Anatolia................................................................................40 2.5 Animal lifestock and trade during the Early Bronze Age..............................................41 3. Archaeozoological Methods applied to the Animal Remains from Troy......................42 3.1. Determination of Bone Remains and Evaluation of Data.............................................42 3.2. Measurements................................................................................................................44 3.3. What are Logarithmic Size indices (LSI)?....................................................................44 3.4. Age determination.........................................................................................................45 3.5. Sex determination..........................................................................................................45 4. Animal Bone Material from Troy, Kumtepe, Yenibademli, Ulucak and Küllüoba.....46 4.1 Animal Bone Material from Troy..................................................................................47 4.1.1. The distribution of the bone remains according to species in the Maritime Troy Culture...........................................................................................52 4.1.2. The unidentified bone material from the Maritime Troy Culture..........................55 Size of the mammal..........................................................................................................57 Medium mammals............................................................................................................57 4.1.3. Sheep to goat ratios and the possible Livestock in Troy during the Maritime Troy Culture....................................................................................57 4.2. Animal Bone Material from Kumtepe..........................................................................61 4.3. Animal Bone Material from Yenibademli....................................................................62 4.4. An Overview of the general composition of the Animal Bone Remains from Troas and Yenibademli during the Maritime Troy Culture.........................................64 4.4.1. Distribution of Domestic Animals in Troas and Yenibademli...............................66 4.5. Animal Bone Material from Ulucak..............................................................................69 4.6. Animal Bone Material from Küllüoba..........................................................................73 5. Remarks on the Domestic Fauna of Troy........................................................................78 5.1. Sheep, OVIS and Goat, CAPRA...................................................................................78 5.1.1. Small ruminants and the relationship of sheep to goat among mammal remains..................................................................................................79 5.1.2. The bone distribution of sheep, goat and sheep/goat.............................................81 5.1.3. The Gender of the small ruminants........................................................................84 5.1.3.1. Sheep...............................................................................................................84 5.1.3.2. Goat.................................................................................................................86 5.1.4. The Dental Aging of Sheep and Goat....................................................................86 5.1.4.1. The Dental Aging of Sheep.............................................................................86 5.1.4.1.1. Crown height of the M from Sheep........................................................87 3 5.1.4.2. The Dental Aging of Goat...............................................................................88 5.1.4.3. The Dental Aging of Small Ruminants...........................................................89 5.1.5. The Epiphysis Aging for Sheep and Goat..............................................................91 5.1.5.1. The Epiphysis Aging for Sheep......................................................................92 5.1.5.2. The Epiphysis Aging for Goat........................................................................94 5.1.5.3. The Epiphysis Aging for Small Ruminants.....................................................95 5.1.6. Size of the Small Ruminants..................................................................................98 5.1.7. Conclusion............................................................................................................100 5.2. Cattle, BOS..................................................................................................................105 5.2.1. Bone distribution of Cattle...................................................................................106 5.2.2. The Gender of the Cattle Remains.......................................................................109 5.2.3. Kill-off pattern of Cattle.......................................................................................110 5.2.3.1. The Dental Aging of Cattle...........................................................................110 5.2.3.2. Epiphysis fusion of Cattle in the Maritime Troy Culture..............................111 5.2.4. Size of the Cattle..................................................................................................111 5.2.5. Conclusions..........................................................................................................112 5.3. Pig, SUS......................................................................................................................114 5.3.1. The bone distribution of pig.................................................................................115 5.3.2. Pig Gender............................................................................................................117 5.3.3. Kill-off pattern of Pigs.........................................................................................117 5.3.3.1. Epiphysis fusion in Pigs................................................................................117 5.3.3.2. The Dental Aging of Pig...............................................................................119 5.3.4. Pig Size.................................................................................................................120 5.3.5. Conclusions..........................................................................................................121 5.4. Dog, CANIS................................................................................................................124 5.5. Domestic Animal Management in the Troas and at Yenibagdemli between 5000 – 3000 BC...................................................................................................126 5.5.1. Overview of the earlier Domestic Animal Management in the Troas and at Yenibagdemli...................................................................................126 5.5.2. Cattle Herd Management.....................................................................................128 5.5.2.1. Cattle Size.....................................................................................................130 5.5.3. Small Ruminant Management..............................................................................131 5.5.3.1. Size of the Small Ruminants.........................................................................134 5.5.3.2. Development of “Small Ruminant” Management in the Troas and Yenibademli from the 5th to 3rd millennium BC...............................................135 5.5.4. Pig Breeding.........................................................................................................138 6. The Wild Mammal Fauna..............................................................................................140 6.1. The current natural environment in the vicinity of Troy.............................................140 6.2. The identified wild mammal remains from the Maritime Troy Culture.....................144 6.2.1. Hedgehog, Erinaceus sp.......................................................................................145 6.2.2. Hare, Lepus europaeus (Pic. 6-1).........................................................................145 6.2.3. Red Fox, Vulpes vulpes (Pic. 6-2)........................................................................147 6.2.4. Wolf, Canis lupus.................................................................................................148 6.2.5. Bear, Ursus arctos (Pic. 6-3)................................................................................148 6.2.6. Lynx, Lynx lynx (Pic. 6-4)....................................................................................149 6.2.7. Lion, Panthera leo (Pic. 6-5)...............................................................................149 6.2.8. Weasel, Mustela nivalis........................................................................................150 6.2.9. Wild Boar, Sus scrofa (Pic. 6-6)..........................................................................151 6.2.10. Roe deer, Capreolus capreolus (Pic. 6-7)..........................................................154 6.2.11. Fallow Deer, Dama dama (Pic. 6-8)..................................................................154 6.2.12. Red Deer, Cervus elaphus (Pic. 6-9)..................................................................159 6.2.13. Aurochs, Bos primigenius (Pic. 6-10)................................................................159 6.2.14. Conclusion..........................................................................................................161 6.3. Hunted fauna in the Troas and Yenibagdemli from the 5th millennium to the end of the 3rd millennium BC..................................................................................164 7. Food Recources in the Troas and an introduction to some of the ancient vegetation168 7.1. Summary.....................................................................................................................175 8. The mammalian fauna and its relation to humans and the environment in West Anatolia during the 3rd millennium BC..............................................................................176 8.1. Importance of Domestic Animals...............................................................................176 8.1.1. Animal Husbandry...............................................................................................178 8.1.2. Kill-off pattern of Domestic Animals in West Anatolia......................................183 8.1.2.1. Kill-off pattern of Cattle................................................................................183 8.1.2.2. Kill-off pattern of Small ruminants...............................................................186 8.1.2.3. Kill-off pattern of Pigs..................................................................................189 8.1.3. Size of the Domestic Animals in West Anatolia..................................................190 8.1.3.1. Size of Cattle.................................................................................................190 8.1.3.2. Sheep Size.....................................................................................................194 8.1.3.3. Goat Size.......................................................................................................197 8.1.3.4. Pig Size..........................................................................................................198 8.1.3.5. Dog Size........................................................................................................199 8.1.4. Animal Management........................................................................................200 8.2. Wild Mammal Spectrum.............................................................................................204 9. Concluding observations on the faunal remains of the Maritime Troy Culture........206 9.1. The development of livestock-management during the Maritime Troy Culture.................................................................................................206 9.1.1 Small Ruminants...................................................................................................206 9.1.2 Cattle.....................................................................................................................207 9.1.3 Pig..........................................................................................................................207 9.1.4 The lack of equids during the Early Bronze Age..................................................208 9.2. Exploitation of domestic animals for lifetime products and slaughtering in Troy................................................................................................................................210 9.2.1. Lifetime products of domestic animals....................................................................210 9.2.1.1. Mental Acrobatics: The size of sheep and spindle whirls = wool sheep in Troy during the early periods?...............................................................................211 9.2.2. Slaughtering Management of Domestic Animals................................................214 9.3. Exploitation of the Environment in Troy....................................................................215 9.4. Contribution of the Wild Fauna to the general meat consumption in Troy................217 9.4.1. The use of deer motives in archaeological objects...............................................219 9.5. General Economy Based on Animals..........................................................................222 9.5.1. General Meat Consumption.................................................................................222 9.5.2. Domestic Animals and their Role in the Internal and External Economy...........223 9.6. Environmental changes in the Troas during the Maritime Troy Culture....................229 10. The End of the Maritime Troy Culture - A Case of Abrupt Climate Change?.......234 References.............................................................................................................................235 Abbreviations........................................................................................................................242 List of Tables 4. Animal Bone Material from Troia, Kumtepe, Yenibademli, Ulucak and Küllüoba Tab. 4-1: Species list for Troia I. Tab. 4-2: Species list for Troia II. Tab. 4-3: Species list for Troia III. Tab. 4-4: Species list for the whole Maritime Troia Culture (TR I/TR II/TR III and the mix material) Tab. 4-5: Potential species list up to the original size of the unidentified bone remains. Tab. 4-6: The Ratio between identified Sheep and Goat and possible NIS and NIS% as well as WIS and WIS% after the re-calculations in the assemblage of identified mammal remains. Tab. 4-7: The first three most kept animals among the Maritime Culture periods. Tab. 4-8: Species list for the Early Bronze Age of Yenibademli. Tab. 4-9: The Chronology Table of the some important sites that mentioned in this study. Tab. 4-10: Species list for the Copper Age of Ulucak. Tab. 4-11: Species list for the Early Bronze Age of Ulucak. Tab. 4-12: Species list for the Transition Period (TP) of Küllüoba . Tab. 4-13: Species list for the EBA I of Küllüoba. Tab. 4-14: Species list for the EBA II&III of Küllüoba. 5 – Remarks on the Domestic Fauna of Troy 5.1. Sheep, OVIS and Goat, CAPRA Tab. 5-1: The Ratio between identified Sheep and Goat and possible NIS and NIS% as well as WIS and WIS% among the Sheep, Goat and small ruminants in the assemblage of identified mammal remains.*1 Tab. 5-2 A: The distribution of sheep remains form Troia I.* Tab. 5-2 B: The distribution of sheep remains form Troia II.* Tab. 5-2 C: The distribution of sheep remains form Troia III.* Tab. 5-2 D: The distribution of sheep remains form Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-3: The distribution of the comparative sheep skeletal form a Cameroon hair sheep.* Tab. 5-4 A: The distribution of goat remains form Troia I.* Tab. 5-4 B: The distribution of goat remains form Troia II.* Tab. 5-4 C: The distribution of goat remains form Troia III.* Tab. 5-4 D: The distribution of goat remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-5 A: The distribution of small ruminants remains form Troia I.* Tab. 5-5 B: The distribution of small ruminants remains form Troia II.* Tab. 5-5 C: The distribution of small ruminants remains form Troia III.* Tab. 5-5 D: The distribution of small ruminants remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-6: Sheep remains showing sexual characteristics per phase in number with skeletal part and sex. Tab. 5-7: Ten pelvis measurements from sheep with gender. Tab. 5- 8: Goat remains showing sexual characteristics per phase in number with skeletal part and sex. Tab. 5-9: Dental aging of sheep for Troia I, Troia II, Troia III and during the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab- 5-10: Specific dental aging groups for sheep during the Maritime Troia Culture.* 1 * = only in the second band. 7 Tab. 5-11: Dental aging of goat from Troia I, Troia II and during the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-12: Specific dental aging groups for goat during the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-13: Dental aging of domestic small ruminants for Troia I, Troia II, Troia III and during the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-14: Specific dental aging groups for domestic small ruminants for Troia I, Troia II, Troia III and during the Maritime Troia Culture. Tab.5-15: The epiphysis fusing periods of sheep during Troia I.* Tab. 5-16: The epiphysis fusing periods of sheep during Troia II.* Tab. 5-17: The epiphysis fusing periods of sheep during Troia III.* Tab. 5-18: The epiphysis fusing periods of sheep during the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-19: The epiphysis fusing periods of goat during the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-20: The epiphysis fusing periods of small ruminants during Troia I.* Tab. 5-21: The epiphysis fusing periods of small ruminants during Troia II.* Tab. 5-22: The epiphysis fusing periods of small ruminants during Troia III.* Tab. 5-23: The epiphysis fusing periods of small ruminants during the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-24: The shoulder height of the sheep after calculating from identified intact long bones. 5.2. Cattle, BOS Tab. 5-25 A: The distribution of cattle remains form Troia I.* Tab. 5-25 B: The distribution of cattle remains form Troia II.* Tab. 5-25 C: The distribution of cattle remains form Troia III.* Tab. 5-25 D: The distribution of cattle remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-26: The distribution of the comparative skeletal of cattle BO30.* Tab. 5-27: Identified pelvis remains from cattle and their probable gender. Tab. 5-28: Measured pelvis remains from cattle and their probable gender. Tab. 5-29: Dental aging of cattle in Troia I.* Tab. 5-30: Dental aging of cattle in Troia II.* Tab. 5-31: Dental aging of cattle during the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-32: The epiphyseal fusing periods of cattle in Troia I.* Tab. 5-33: The epiphyseal fusing periods of cattle in Troia II.* Tab. 5-34: The epiphyseal fusing periods of cattle during the Maritime Troia Culture.* 5.3. Pig, SUS Tab. 5-35 A: The distribution of pig remains form Troia I.* Tab. 5-35 B: The distribution of pig remains form Troia II.* Tab. 5-35 C: The distribution of pig remains form Troia III.* Tab. 5-35 D: The distribution of pig remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-36: Bone weight of the comparative skeletal from pig (SUS 12).* Tab. 5-37: Pig bones with sexual characteristics per phase and the Maritime Troia Culture. Tab. 5-38: The epiphyseal fusing periods of pig in Troia I.* Tab. 5-39: The epiphyseal fusing periods of pig in Troia II.* Tab. 5-40: The epiphyseal fusing periods of pig in Troia III.* Tab. 5-41: The epiphyseal fusing periods of pig during the Maritime Troia Culture.* 8 Tab. 5-42: Dental aging of pig in Troia I.* Tab. 5-43: Dental aging of pig in Troia II.* Tab. 5-44: Specific dental aging groups for pig during the Maritime Troia Culture. 5.4. Dog, CANIS Tab. 5-45: The distribution of dog remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 5-46: The epiphyseal fusing periods of dog in Troia I.* Tab. 5-47: The epiphyseal fusing periods of dog in Troia II.* 5.5. Domestic Animal Management in The Troas between 5000 – 3000 B.C. Tab. 5-48: The epiphyseal fusing periods of cattle in Yenibademli.* Tab. 5-59: The epiphyseal fusing periods of small ruminants in Yenibademli.* Tab. 5-50: The breeding aim of small ruminants in different ages and probable killing age with the firstly killed gender. Tab. 5-51: The epiphyseal fusing periods of pigs in Yenibademli.* 6. The Wild Mammal Fauna Tab. 6-1: The distribution of hare, Lepus ceuropaeus remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 6-2: The distribution of fox, Vulpes vulpes remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 6-3: The distribution of wild boar, Sus scrofa remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 6-4: The distribution of roe deer, Capreolus capreolus remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 6-5 A: The distribution of fallow deer, Dama dama remains form Troia I.* Tab. 6-5 B: The distribution of fallow deer, Dama dama remains form Troia II.* Tab. 6-5 C: The distribution of fallow deer, Dama dama remains form Troia III.* Tab. 6-5 D: The distribution of fallow deer, Dama dama remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 6-6: The distribution of red deer, Cervus elaphus remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* Tab. 6-7: The distribution of aurochs, Bos primigenius remains form the Maritime Troia Culture.* 8. The mammalian fauna and its relation to humans and the environment in West Anatolia during the 3rd millennium BC Tab. 8-1: The epiphyseal fusing periods of cattle in Ulucak during the Copper Age.* Tab. 8-2: The epiphyseal fusing periods of cattle in Ulucak during the Early Bronze Age.* Tab. 8-3: The epiphyseal fusing periods of cattle in Küllüoba during the Transition Period and the Early Bronze Age.* Tab. 8-4: The epiphyseal fusing periods of small ruminants in Ulucak during the Copper Age.* Tab. 8-5: The epiphyseal fusing periods of small ruminants in Ulucak during the Early Bronze Age.* Tab. 8-6: The epiphyseal fusing periods of small ruminants in Küllüoba during the Transition Period and the Early Bronze Age.* Tab. 8-7: The epiphyseal fusing periods of pigs in Ulucak during the Copper Age.* Tab. 8-8: The epiphyseal fusing periods of pigs in Ulucak during the Early Bronze Age.* Tab. 8-9: The epiphyseal fusing periods of pig in Küllüoba during the Transition Period and the Early Bronze Age.* 9. Concluding observations on the faunal remains of the Maritime Troia Culture Tab. 9-1: The possible living habitat of the wild fowl that are identified from the settlements of Troas. 9 List of Figures 4. Animal Bone Material from Troy, Kumtepe, Yenibademli, Ulucak and Küllüoba Fig. 4-1: Number of identified (NIS) mammal and non-mammal remains and their weight distribution (WIS) for the Maritime Troy Culture per phase as percentage. Fig. 4-2: The distribution of bone remains per domestic, wild or domestic and wild mammals for the Maritime Troy Culture and its phases in percentages. Fig. 4-3: The distribution of bone remains weight per domestic, wild or domestic and wild mammals for the Maritime Troy Culture and its phases in percentages. Fig. 4-4: The distribution of bone remains per domestic mammal species during the Maritime Troy Culture and its phases in percentages. Fig. 4-5: The distribution of bone weight per domestic mammal species during the Maritime Troy Culture and its phases in percentages. Fig. 4-6: The distribution of the identified and unidentified mammal remains and their weight in the Maritime Troy Culture per phase as percentages. Fig. 4-7: The unidentified mammal remains as N%. Fig. 4-8: The unidentified mammal remains as W%. Fig. 4-9: Number of identified bone remains from sheep and goat among the identified domestic animals after re-calculations from Troy I, Troy II, Troy III and during the Maritime Troy Culture. Fig. 4-10: Weight of the identified bone remains from sheep and goat for the Maritime Troy Culture and its phases in percentages among the identified domestic animals after re-calculation. Fig. 4-11: The weight and identified bone remains from sheep and goat among the identified domestic animals after re-calculation from Troy I, Troy II, Troy III and the Maritime Troy Culture. Fig. 4-12: Number of identified mammal remains from Troy III, Troy II, Troy I, Beşik-Yassıtepe and Yenibademli. Fig. 4-13: Weight distribution of identified mammal remains from Troy III, Troy II, Troy I, Beşik-Yassıtepe and Yenibademli. Fig. 4-14: Number of identified domestic mammal remains in the Troas settlements: Troy III, Troy II, Troy I, Beşik-Yassıtepe, Yenibademli, ~ Kumtepe C, ~ Kumtepe B and ~ Kumtepe A. Fig. 4-15: Weight distribution of identified domestic mammal remains in the Troas settlements: Troy III, Troy II, Troy I, Beşik-Yassıtepe, Yenibademli, ~ Kumtepe C, ~ Kumtepe B and ~ Kumtepe A. 5. Remarks on the Domestic Fauna of Troy 5.1. Sheep, OVIS and Goat, CAPRA Fig. 5-1: Number of the identified bone remains from goat, sheep and other mammal remains among the identified mammal remains after re-calculations from Troy I, Troy II, Troy III and during the Maritime Troy Culture. Fig. 5-2: Weight of the identified bone remains from goat, sheep and other mammals among the identified mammal remains after re-calculations for Troy I, Troy II, Troy III and during the Maritime Troy Culture. Fig. 5-3 A: The distribution of sheep remains from the Maritime Troy Culture as a whole.* Fig. 5-3 B: The distribution of sheep remains from the Maritime Troy Culture as a whole.* Fig. 5-3 C: The distribution of sheep remains from the Maritime Troy Culture as a whole.* Fig. 5-3 D: The distribution of sheep remains from the Maritime Troy Culture as a whole. 10