The Manual of Photography Ninth Edition This Page Intentionally Left Blank The Manual of Photography Photographic and digital imaging Ninth Edition Ralph E. Jacobson Sidney F. Ray MSc, PhD, CChem, FRSC, ASIS Hon., FRPS, BSc, MSc, ASIS, FBIPP, FMPA, FRPS FBIPP Geoffrey G. Attridge Norman R. Axford BSc, PhD, ASIS, FRPS BSc Focal Press OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI Focal Press An imprint of Butterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041 A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group The Ilford Manual of Photography First published 1890 Fifth edition 1958 Reprinted eight times The Manual of Photography Sixth edition 1970 Reprinted 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975 Seventh edition 1978 Reprinted 1978, 1981, 1983, 1987 Eighth edition 1988 Reprinted 1990, 1991, 1993, 1995 (twice), 1997, 1998 Ninth edition, 2000 © Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd 2000 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P 0LP. Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers Under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, Sidney Ray asserts his moral rights to be identified as an author of this multi-authored work British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data The manual of photography: photographic and digital imaging – 9th ed. 1. Photography – Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Jacobson, Ralph E. (Ralph Eric), 1941– 771 ISBN 0 240 51574 9 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data The manual of photography: photographic and digital imaging. – 9th ed./Ralph E. Jacobson ... [et al.]. p.cm. Originally published in 1890 under the title: The Ilford manual of photography. Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0 240 51574 9 (alk. paper) 1. Photography. I. Jacobson, R. E. TR145 .M315 2000 771–dc21 00-042984 Composition by Genesis Typesetting, Rochester Printed and bound in Great Britain Contents Preface to the first edition of The The lens conjugate equation 45 Ilford Manual of Photography Field angle of view 48 (1890) ix Covering power of a lens 49 Geometric distortion 49 Preface to the ninth edition xi Depth of field 50 Depth of field equations 53 1 Imaging systems 1 Depth of focus 56 Perspective 57 Ralph E. Jacobson The production of images 1 5 The photometry of image Photographic and digital imaging 2 formation 61 General characteristics of reproduction systems 5 Sidney F. Ray Imaging chains 6 Stops and pupils 61 The reproduction of tone and colour 6 Aperture 62 Image quality expectations 7 Mechanical vignetting 62 Image illumination 63 2 Fundamentals of light and vision 9 Image illuminance with wide-angle Ralph E. Jacobson lenses 66 Exposure compensation for close-up Light waves and particles 9 photography 67 Optics 10 Light losses and lens transmission 68 The electromagnetic spectrum 10 Flare and its effects 68 The eye and vision 11 T-numbers 69 Anti-reflection coatings 69 3 Photographic light sources 16 Sidney F. Ray 6 Optical aberrations and lens Characteristics of light sources 16 performance 72 Light output 21 Daylight 25 Sidney F. Ray Tungsten-filament lamps 25 Introduction 72 Tungsten–halogen lamps 26 Axial chromatic aberration 72 Fluorescent lamps 27 Lateral chromatic aberration 74 Metal-halide lamps 27 Spherical aberration 75 Pulsed xenon lamps 27 Coma 76 Expendable flashbulbs 28 Curvature of field 77 Electronic flash 29 Astigmatism 77 Other sources 38 Curvilinear distortion 78 Diffraction 79 4 The geometry of image Resolution and resolving power 80 formation 39 Modulation transfer function 81 Sidney F. Ray Interaction of light with matter 39 7 Camera lenses 83 Image formation 41 Sidney F. Ray The simple lens 42 Image formation by a compound lens 43 Simple lenses 83 Graphical construction of images 45 Compound lenses 83 v vi Contents Development of the photographic lens 85 12 Sensitive materials and image Modern camera lenses 88 sensors 191 Wide-angle lenses 91 Ralph E. Jacobson Long-focus lenses 93 Zoom and varifocal lenses 95 Latent image formation in silver Macro lenses 98 halides 191 Teleconverters 99 Image formation by charge-coupled Optical attachments 100 devices 193 Special effects 102 Production of light-sensitive materials and sensors 195 8 Types of camera 104 Sizes and formats of photographic and electronic sensors and media 200 Sidney F. Ray Survey of development 104 13 Spectral sensitivity of Camera types 107 photographic materials 205 Special purpose cameras 113 Geoffrey G. Attridge Automatic cameras 115 Digital cameras 120 Response of photographic materials to Architecture of the digital camera 125 short-wave radiation 205 Response of photographic materials to visible radiation 206 9 Camera features 131 Spectral sensitization 207 Sidney F. Ray Orthochromatic materials 208 Panchromatic materials 208 Shutter systems 131 Extended sensitivity materials 208 The iris diaphragm 136 Infrared materials 209 Viewfinder systems 138 Other uses of dye sensitization 209 Flash synchronization 143 Determination of the colour sensitivity Focusing systems 144 of an unknown material 210 Autofocus systems 151 Wedge spectrograms 210 Exposure metering systems 154 Spectral sensitivity of digital cameras 211 Battery power 160 Data imprinting 161 14 Principles of colour photography 213 10 Camera movements 163 Geoffrey G. Attridge Sidney F. Ray Colour matching 213 The first colour photograph 214 Introduction 163 Additive colour photography 214 Translational movements 165 Subtractive colour photography 214 Rotational movements 165 Additive processes 215 Lens covering power 166 Subtractive processes 217 Control of image sharpness 168 Integral tripacks 217 Limits to lens tilt 170 Control of image shape 171 15 Sensitometry 218 Perspective control lenses 173 Shift cameras 174 Geoffrey G. Attridge The subject 218 11 Optical filters 176 Exposure 218 Density 219 Sidney F. Ray Effect of light scatter in a negative 220 Optical filters 176 Callier coefficient 220 Filter sizes 178 Density in practice 221 Filters and focusing 178 The characteristic (H and D) curve 222 Colour filters for black-and-white Main regions of the negative photography 179 characteristic curve 223 Colour filters for colour photography 182 Variation of the characteristic curve Special filters 183 with the material 225 Polarizing filters 186 Variation of the characteristic curve Filters for darkroom use 189 with development 225 Contents vii Gamma-time curve 226 17 Photographic processing 273 Variation of gamma with wavelength 227 Ralph E. Jacobson Placing of the subject on the characteristic curve 227 Developers and development 273 Average gradient and G¯ 228 Developing agents 273 Contrast index 228 Preservatives 276 Effect of variation in development on Alkalis 276 the negative 228 Restrainers (anti-foggants) 277 Effect of variation in exposure on the Miscellaneous additions to developers 277 negative 229 Superadditivity (synergesis) 278 Exposure latitude 230 Monochrome developer formulae in The response curve of a photographic general use 279 paper 231 Changes in a developer with use 282 Maximum black 231 Replenishment 283 Exposure range of a paper 232 Preparing developers 284 Variation of the print curve with the Techniques of development 285 type of emulsion 232 Obtaining the required degree of Variation of the print curve with development 289 development 233 Quality control 292 Requirements in a print 234 Processing following development 293 Paper contrast 234 Rinse and stop baths 293 The problem of the subject of high Fixers 294 contrast 235 Silver recovery 296 Tone reproduction 236 Bleaching of silver images 298 Reciprocity law failure 238 Washing 299 Sensitometric practice 239 Tests for permanence 300 Sensitometers 240 Drying 301 Densitometers 241 Elementary sensitometry 244 18 Speed of materials, sensors and Sensitometry of a digital camera 245 systems 302 Ralph E. Jacobson 16 The reproduction of colour 247 Speed of photographic media 302 Methods of expressing speed 302 Geoffrey G. Attridge Speed systems and standards 305 Colours of the rainbow 247 ISO speed ratings for colour materials 306 Colours of natural objects 247 Speed of digital systems 307 Effect of the light source on the Speed ratings in practice 308 appearance of colours 248 Response of the eye to colours 248 19 Camera exposure determination 310 Primary and complementary colours 249 Sidney F. Ray Complementary pairs of colours 250 Low light levels 250 Camera exposure 310 Black-and-white processes 250 Optimum exposure criteria 311 Colour processes 251 Exposure latitude 311 Formation of subtractive image dyes 254 Subject luminance ratio 312 Colour sensitometry 254 Development variations 313 Imperfections of colour processes 258 Exposure determination 313 Correction of deficiencies of the Practical exposure tests 315 subtractive system 259 Light measurement 315 Masking of colour materials 260 Exposure meter calibration 316 Problems of duplication 261 Exposure values 318 The chemistry of colour image Incident light measurements 318 formation 263 Exposure meters in practice 320 Chromogenic processes 263 Photometry units 323 Silver-dye-bleach process 268 Spot meters 324 Instant colour processes 269 In-camera metering systems 324 Alternative method for instant Electronic flash exposure metering 329 photography 271 Automatic electronic flash 333 viii Contents 20 Hard copy output media 336 23 Colour matters 383 Ralph E. Jacobson Geoffrey G. Attridge Hard copy output 336 Specification by sample 383 Photographic papers 336 The physical specification of colour 384 Type of silver halide emulsion 336 Specification of colour by synthesis 384 Paper contrast 337 Colour gamuts 389 Paper surface 338 Summing up 392 Paper base 339 Colour photographic papers 339 24 Theory of image formation 393 Processing photographic paper 340 Norman R. Axford Pictrography and Pictrostat 344 Dry Silver materials 345 Sinusoidal waves 394 Cylithographic materials/Cycolor 346 Images and sine waves 395 Thermal imaging materials 346 Imaging sinusoidal patterns 397 Materials for ink-jet printing 347 Fourier theory of image formation 398 Measuring modulation transfer functions (MTF) 406 Discrete transforms and sampling 408 21 Production of hard copy 348 The MTF for a CCD imaging array 411 Ralph E. Jacobson Image quality and MTF 411 Photographic printing and enlarging 349 25 Images and information 413 Types of enlargers 349 Light sources for enlarging and Norman R. Axford printing 353 Image noise 413 Lenses for enlargers 354 Photographic noise 413 Ancillary equipment 355 Quantifying image noise 417 Exposure determination 355 Practical considerations for the Conventional image manipulation 358 autocorrelation function and the Colour printing 359 noise power spectrum 419 Colour enlarger design 362 Signal-to-noise ratio 420 Types of colour enlarger 363 Detective quantum efficiency (DQE) 422 Methods of evaluating colour negatives Information theory 426 for printing 365 Digital output 367 26 Digital image processing and Evaluating the results 370 manipulation 428 Norman R. Axford 22 Life expectancy of imaging media 372 Linear spatial filtering (convolution) 428 Frequency domain filtering 429 Ralph E. Jacobson Non-linear filtering 433 Life expectancy of photographic media 372 Statistical operations (point, grey-level Processing conditions 373 operations) 434 Storage conditions 375 Image restoration 438 Atmospheric gases 376 Edge detection and segmentation 442 Toning 377 Image data compression 443 Light fading 378 Life expectancy of digital media 379 Index 447 Preface to the first edition of The Ilford Manual of Photography (1890) This handbook has been compiled at the request of the same time, an endeavour has been made to state, the Ilford Company, in the hope that it may be of in a simple way, sufficient of the principles to enable service to the large numbers of Photographers who the reader to work intelligently, and to overcome most apply the art to pictorial, technical, or scientific of the difficulties that he is likely to meet with. No purposes, and are content to leave to others the claim is made for originality in respect of any of the preparation of the sensitive materials that they use. It facts, and it has therefore not seemed necessary to makes no pretence of being a complete treatise on the state the sources from which even the newer items of principles of the art, and it is not written for those for information have been collected. whom the experimental side of Photography has the C. H. Bothamley most attraction. Its aim will be reached if it serves as a trustworthy guide in the actual practice of the art. At 1890 ix