THE MAKING OF MODERN KASHMIR This book traces the roots of modern-day Kashmir and the role of Sheikh Abdullah in its making. As the most influential political figurehead in twentieth-century Kashmir, he played a crucial role in its transformation from a kingdom to a state in independent India. He was enigmatic and complex, to say the least. Following his meteoric rise, he dominated the political scene for more than 50 years, with enduring impact. The volume presents a keen analysis of pre-Independence events which led to the emergence of a controversial and confused identity of the region. It also looks at other major themes in the political life of Kashmir, including the formation of the Muslim Conference, the plebiscite movement and the Kashmir Accord. A major intervention in the political life of South Asia, this book presents an inside-view of the history of modern Kashmir through the life and times of Sheikh Abdullah. It will be of great interest to scholars and researchers of politics, history, and modern South Asia. Altaf Hussain Para teaches history at Cluster University of Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. He has published papers in several reputed journals including Economic and Political Weekly besides being a regular contributor to the prominent local dailies like Greater Kashmir, Kashmir Times, Rising Kashmir and the weekly Kashmir Life. THE MAKING OF MODERN KASHMIR Sheikh Abdullah and the Politics of the State Altaf Hussain Para First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Altaf Hussain Para The right of Altaf Hussain Para to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-1-138-22160-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-02357-6 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC TO MY PARENTS, ALI AND FATIMA CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 1 Impact of a heartless treaty that sold an entire population 10 2 Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah: early life and ideological background 34 3 Harbinger of national consciousness: from Reading Room Party to Muslim Conference 43 4 Role as Muslim Conference president 63 5 Nationalization of a secular movement 76 6 Role as National Conference president: confronting with alternative voices 97 7 Accession: swimming against the tide? 122 8 In power (1947–1953): shaky foundations of a democratic edifice 158 9 Out of power: trapped in his own cage 197 vii CONTENTS 10 Accord: a lion made toothless 240 11 Regaining power: a shadow of his own 256 Conclusion 279 Bibliography 290 Index 305 viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my gratitude for the encouragement, assistance, and good wishes I have received from various people and institutions in researching and writing this volume. First of all, I am grateful to my inspirational teacher, Professor Mohammed Ashraf Wani, for encouraging me to work on the theme. I am indebted to him for his unflagging support and inspiration. I am grateful also to the entire department of history, Kashmir University, for the support and encouragement. My colleagues, friends, and well-wishers have over the years sus- tained me through the ups and downs of completing this daunting task. My heartfelt thanks to Professor Gulzar Ahmad Paddar, Mukhtar Ahmad, Javeed-ul-Aziz, Manzoor Ahmad, Rouf Majeed, Aijaz Ashraf, Prince, Yunus Rahid, Shabir Hussain Para, Ali Mohammed Bhat, and Sajjad Darzi, among many others, each of whom, in their individual ways, cheered me on during the course of my research. In particular, I acknowledge the support of my friend Bilal Ahmad Dar, a multidi- mensional personality who enormously helped me with his insights and valuable suggestions. My special thanks to all the people who accepted my request for interviews and who shared their private diaries, let- ters, and other valuable materials with me. I am especially thankful to Munshi Hassan who shared with me some extremely important docu- ments about the Plebiscite Movement in Kashmir. Thanks to Professor Nyla Ali Khan, who does not know what is in this book and may well not agree with many of my observations, but still happily provided me two valuable photographs to be used in the South Asian edition of the book. Izzat Amin, my student with enormous talent in photography assisted me in the selection of cover photographs. I wish to record my gratitude for the help I received from the staff of the following libraries and institutions: Seminar Library, Depart- ment of History, and Allama Iqbal Library, University of Kashmir; ix