LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS The Lived Experiences of the Adolescent Father in Northern Virginia Brian Scott Maiden Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Counselor Education Pamelia E. Brott, Chair Norma L. Day-Vines Simone F. Lambert Pamela F. Murphy August 14, 2013 Falls Church, Virginia Keywords: adolescent fathers, fatherhood, phenomenology LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS The Lived Experiences of the Adolescent Father in Northern Virginia Brian Scott Maiden ABSTRACT The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the lived experiences of adolescent fathers in a suburban environment in Northern Virginia. Specifically, phenomenological methods were used to capture the essence of these nine adolescent fathers’ experiences surrounding their conceptualization and enactment of fatherhood. Participants included 5 Hispanic (56%), 2 African-American (22%), 1 Caucasian (11%), and 1 Asian (11%). They ranged in age from 16 to 19 years of age with an average age of 18. Their perspective adds to the current literature and assists counselors and policy makers in gaining a greater understanding of the needs and perceptions of this marginalized group. A transformative process best described the lived experience of these adolescent fathers. Fatherhood was described as a life-changing event, as they traversed a range of negative behaviors to become actively involved fathers. An eco- constructivist model provided an appropriate framework to better understand the subjective meanings the adolescent fathers attached to their lived experiences throughout the transformative process. While the results cannot be generalized, the narratives of these participants provide insight into this marginalized population. These participants define fatherhood in traditional terms (i.e., father as primary provider) and expressed enthusiasm about being actively involved in their children’s daily lives. Further, the majority expressed a renewed focus on educational attainment to provide a better future for themselves and their children. Although participants received assistance from their families, support was lacking from the educational system. This lack of support provides an avenue for communities, schools, and counselors to become advocates for adolescent fathers. School counselors are encouraged to reach out to community agencies, clinical mental heath counselors, and community college counselors as avenues for more complete services for adolescent fathers. There is a need for further research relating to the needs of adolescent fathers. Longitudinal research with these participants is necessary to ascertain how they enacted their conceptualization of fatherhood and the barriers they encountered. LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page # ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of the Study 3 Research Questions 4 Definition of Terms 4 Summary 5 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 What is a Father? 8 Fatherhood as a Multifaceted Construct 11 Redefining Fatherhood 12 Who is the Adolescent Father? 15 Statistical Data Relating to the Adolescent Father 16 Outcomes of Adolescent Parenting 19 Measuring Fatherhood and Involvement 21 Developmental Influences 24 Challenging Stereotypes 26 An Ecological Framework for Understanding the Adolescent Father 28 The Ecological Framework and the Adolescent Father 31 Constructivist Approach and the Adolescent Father 39 Summary 41 CHAPTER 3 METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Research Design 42 Role of the Researcher 43 LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS iv Theoretical Framework 44 Phenomenology 45 Participants 46 Selection Criteria 46 Procedures 47 Institutional Review Board 47 Data Collection Methods 47 Field Notes 48 Data Storage 48 Interview Process 49 Interview Protocol 50 Phenomenological Data Analysis 51 Bracketing 52 Identifying Significant Statements 53 Clustering Units of Meanings to Form Themes 53 Extracting Significant Themes 53 Developing a Composite Summary 54 Trustworthiness 54 Summary 56 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Participants 57 Data Analysis Procedures 57 Themes from the Lived Experiences of the Adolescent Father 59 How Would You Describe Your Life Before Becoming a Father? 60 Unprepared 60 Family Influence 60 Negative Behaviors 60 Child as Change Agent 60 As a Father, What are Your Current Experiences with Your Child? 61 Child as Change Agent 61 LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS v Fatherly Duties 61 School as a Tool 62 In Your Own Words, How Do You Describe What it Means to be a 62 Father? Provider 62 Family Influence 62 Active Involvement 63 Child as Change Agent 64 Essence of the Lived Experiences of the Adolescent Father 65 Eco-Constructivist Framework for the Transformative Process 67 Summary 69 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 A Synthesis of the Results 71 Prior to Fatherhood 72 Current Experiences 72 Defining Fatherhood 74 Triangulation of Findings 75 Convergent 75 Divergent 77 Limitations of the Research 80 Implications 81 School Counselors 80 Future Research 84 Summary 85 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 APPENDICES A Informed Consent for Participants 93 B Minor Assent for Participants 95 C Parental Consent 97 D Interview Protocol 99 LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS vi E Participant Demographic Questionnaire 101 F Participant Recruitment Letter 102 G Themes 104 H Final Coding Iteration by Participant 105 I Coding Iteration Research Question # 1 114 J Coding Iteration Research Question # 2 116 K Coding Iteration Research Question # 3 118 L Adolescent Father Profiles 120 LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS vii LIST OF TABLES Table Title Page # 2.1 Trends in Fatherhood during the 20th Century 9 2.2 Phases of Fatherhood 12 2.3 Terms Used in the Literature Related to Father 13 2.4 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model (1986) 30 2.5 Ecological Studies Using Adolescent Fathers 33 2.6 Summary of Findings from Research on Adolescent Fathers 38 3.1 Coding Protocol 48 4.1 Themes by Research Question 65 LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Title Page # 4.1 The Transformative Process of Adolescent Fatherhood. 67 LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The issues surrounding adolescent fatherhood are complex and call for greater inquiry. This inquiry must include the voice of the adolescent father. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of literature focusing on the lived experience of the adolescent father leading to their marginalization. Further, there is also a void in community-based (Miller, 1997) and educational services (Lane & Clay, 2000) for this population. The lack of empirical research and programs inclusive of the adolescent father affect more than just the adolescent parents and their offspring. Adolescent parenthood is an issue of national concern as the associated costs are linked to the lack of educational completion for adolescent parents and the cycle of poverty that often accompanies this population (Jordan-Zachery, 2009; Paschal, 2006; Weinman, Smith, & Buzi, 2002). While some may consider adolescent pregnancy and parenting to be an inner-city issue, this overlooks the actual costs associated with adolescent pregnancy and parenting. Analysis by The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy show that adolescent births cost taxpayers approximately $10.9 billion each year. In Virginia, the cost to taxpayers was $215 million in 2008 (Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2011). The costs associated with adolescent parenting clearly make this phenomenon more than just an inner-city issue; these costs affect the lives of most Americans. Since becoming a public issue during the 1970s, research related to adolescent parenting has focused on the adolescent mother and child (Furstenberg, 1985; Paschal, 2006; Pirog-Good, 1995; Rozie-Battle, 2003). It was not until the 1990s that the literature began to reflect the adolescent father’s role in the family. Some of the earlier studies reflected the societal view that adolescent parenting, particularly adolescent fathers, operated within the realm of deviant behavior with pregnancy a symptom of those behaviors (Furstenberg, 1985; Paschal, 2006). Adolescent fathers were often blamed for being an absent or uninvolved parent, leaving the burden of raising his children to the adolescent mother and the larger society. While this may be the case for some adolescent fathers, a review of the more recent literature indicates many expressed the desire to care for their children. While the larger society champions the adult father’s active involvement in his children’s lives, the adolescent father image continues to be defined by negative stereotypes. Unfortunately, LIVED EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERS 2 the literature, prior to the 1990s, relating to adolescent fathers was not particularly helpful in changing the prevailing opinions associated with this population. Indeed, early research focused on negative depictions of adolescent fathers. More recent literature has limited the focus to inner-city adolescent fathers who struggle with the resources to enact their vision of fatherhood (Paschal, 2006). Despite these stereotypes, there is increasing evidence that teen fathers want to be (and are) involved with their children, though this involvement may not always include financial support (Allen & Doherty, 1996). Evidence suggests that many adolescent fathers are actively involved and invested in the daily care of their offspring (Dornig et al., 2006; Sullivan, 1989). The adolescent father faces many seen and unseen challenges as he navigates the transition to parenthood. For instance, adolescent fathers are often unfairly compared to older married fathers and unfairly stereotyped when they do not adequately meet those comparisons (Allen & Doherty, 1996; Gavin, 2002). As a result, they consistently face the characterizations as being (a) not committed to their child; (b) absent from financial responsibility; (c) lack connection with their child; and (d) involved with at-risk, criminal, or delinquent behavior. While unseen to the adolescent father, his view of fatherhood may also contribute to his difficulty in enacting the role of father. The literature informs us that many adolescent fathers cite the traditional role of financial supporter as the primary responsibility of the father (Dornig et al., 2006; Paschal, 2006; Sullivan, 1989). Attempts to enact this traditional role are often hindered by the adolescent father’s maturity level, lack of educational achievement, and limited employment experience leaving many adolescent fathers discouraged and disillusioned (Dornig et al., 2006; Paschal, 2006). Without the developmental maturity to adapt to this disappointment, the adolescent father’s involvement decreases over time (Futris & Schoppe-Sullivan, 2007). It is malfeasant that the adolescent father has been largely ignored by policy makers, social service providers, and programs through community agencies, and educational programs and services where the primary focus has been on the needs of the adolescent mother and child (Rozie-Battle, 2003). The adolescent father’s exclusion from services offered by community agencies and schools alike, despite prior research indicating their desire to be involved, indicates a need to better understand their perspective and provide appropriate services to this population. Change begins by listening to the voice of adolescent fathers’ and the narratives of their lived experiences.