The Last Champion of Play-Wisdom: Aesop. Stefano Jedrkiewicz 1. Huizinga and theplay-element in Greek culture. "Culture arises in the form of play... it is played from the very beginning... it proceeds in the shape and the mood of play": it is with these words that Huizinga gave to play, that free, pleasurable, self-contained activity with no economic or utilitarian aim, the status of a fundamental element in culture. Since by "culture" he generally meant any form of human life entailing artis- tic or intellectual elaboration, he asserted by the same token that play factors are central in the development of knowledge, that is in the activities aimed at establishing what is "reality" and what is "truth". With reference to Ancient Greece, he took the sophist as a typical practitioner of "play-science", consi- dering him as a successor to primitive prophets, thaumaturges and poets'. Huizinga was not afraid of asking more questions than he could answer; so the notion of culture he tried to construct could never reach complete cohe- rence=. In Homo Ludens, the treatment of the relationships between "play" and "seriousness" is, on the whole, as stimulating as it is baffling. Play is in- separable from civilization (a term which is on an equal footing with "cultu- re"); but not all historical epochs are equally "playful", and indeed in some of them the original union ends in divorce for reasons which are never very clear. The main question is left standing: if play is a creative force operating in culture, why should culture relinquish it at all? Huizinga's insights, nevertheless, seem worth picking up; not in order to re- vise the description of play factors in Greek culture given in Homo Ludens, 1. 1. HuIZINGA, HomoLudens, Boston 1955, 46 and 146. 2. The relevance of Huizinga's idea of culture for Greek history has been specifically discussed by A. MOMIGI.IAN<O, "1.'agonale di Burckhardt e I' "Homo Ludens" diJ. Huizinga", ASV SPisa, 4, 1974, 369-73. 110 Stelano ledrkiewicz still less to attempt a fully-fledged recognition of the anthropological area of play', hut in order to explore some aspects of Greek cultural evolution from a (hopefully) different angle. Huizinga insists on the fact that play factors were at work in the development of Greek thought; that some specific "culture operators" made extensive use of them; and that some representations of re- ality and notions of truth were elaborated thanks to this "method". This essay will focus on some play elements in the specifically Greek concept of sophia, originally meaning both practical and theoretical knowledge. The main question is: why, after having held for some time a recognized status as elements of Sophia, play features were pushed into a marginal position, and eventually outside the domain of "real" knowledge? To attempt an answer, the discussion will focus on: a) some specific ways of producing sophia; h) the relevance among them of a particular rhetorical instrment, the fable, and of its asserted inventor, Aesop; c) a cultural role which was played until Late Antiquity, that of the Mad Wise Man. Eventually, some possible inferen- ces on the separation of play from knowledge in Ancient culture will be ten- tatively offered. 2. Theplay dimension ofsophia. What is, first of all, the meaning of "play" with reference to sophia! All along in Homo ludens, Huizinga features play as an alternative to "ordi- nary" life. Contrary to any other human activity, play is pursued merely for its own sake. It is however recognized as a socially relevant activity, provi- ding pleasure to the community and often introducing constructive competi- tion in it. A temporary secession from normal existence, it produces the fun- damental contrast between seriousness, the mark of the constriction of the outside reality, and jest, the expression of the player's freedom. Play thus provides some patterns for experiment, innovation and creation. Starting from Huizinga's general discussion, and keeping within the field of human communication, the following attitudes can thus he considered as forms of play: 1. Paradox: the deliberate distortion of current formulations. Questioning ac- cepted views of reality, paradox also betrays a playful intellectual disposi- tion, in so far as it accepts the risk of failing to alter the established order of ideas, of remaining a mere individual joke which achieves nothing else than the pleasure of being performed'. 2. Irony: the mode of speech where the verbal media contradicts the con- ceptual message, in the attemp to produce new meanings by negating se- riousness to the given reality. 3. As attempted, for instance, by R. CAILLOIS, Les/eU,Xetles hommes, Paris 1967(2). 4. This is the Presocratic "tradition of hold conjectures and of free criticism" which has been sketched by SirJ. P(wi,tut, "Back to the Presocratics", in Conjectures andRcJntalions. London and Henley, 1972 ('), 136-55. The List Champion of' Play-Wisdom: Aesop 117 3. Parody: the attempt to modify a previous utterance by partially repeating it while introducing some modifications which affect the authority of the mo- del and stimulate new thinking on the subject. '1. Utopia: the representation of an alternative world. I luizinga was well aware of the fact that, since Presocratic times, the sophos is somebody mastering verbal and conceptual techniques. To state views ap- parently conflicting with reality (it can be added) is the sophos' privilege and duty (nothing could be more directly opposed to common experience than the opening declaration of Greek science, Thales' utterance that all things are made of water`) and this capability may lead him to express a radical and self-conscious denial of the value of given representations and of current procedures of thought. "Of all those whose words I heard" says Heraclitus "no one came to unclertand that real knowledge (sophon) lies separate from all other things" Moving from Burckhardt's description of the agonistic temper in Greek civili- zation, Huizinga also pointed to the play dimension inherent to the wisdom- diffusing process. Although his wording was different, and made no specific reference to the notion and operating modalities of the still largely oral ar- chaic Greek culture, Huizinga was aware of the double original requirement of suphia: an agonistic mode of elaboration and an hedonistic mode of re- ception by the public. 'T'hese two play elements are strictly linked. Pleasure is a main vehicle of per- suasion: Gorgias and Plato knew very well the spell-casting modalities of po- etic and dramatic performances-. Gratifying its audience in order to instruct them, the message provides an alternative to practical, daily-life communica- tion: in other words, it opens up a play dimension. But this play must be competitive. Truth is nobody's monopoly: it emerges from the comparative performance of the various sophoi. The final assessment is normally rende- red by the audience (directly or through a jury). From the contest between Homer and Hesiod down to the dramatic agones staged in the Athenian the- atre of 1)ionysos in V Century B.C., competing messages of wisdom are thus performed in front of an audience who are there to compare, weigh and gi- ve final arbitration on the relative value of each of them. The "sophistic" competition for "theoretical" sophia, which Huizinga took as typical of "play-knowledge" in V Century B.C., obeys those same principles. The competitors engage in an agon of spoken words: listeners are meant to become engrossed in the argument in order to declare their conviction and their support to one of them; truth and knowledge are the prize of the dia- lectical winner. Formally sound deductions as well as paralogisms, enigmas, amphibologies, all are used as speech acts in order to assert the opposers' 5. "Thales, frag. 11 13 1, 3 Diels-Kranz. 6. l1eraclitus, frag. R 108 Diels-Kranz. 7. Gorgias, frag. 82 l3 11, 9 and 23 Diels-Kranz. Plato, Phaedrus, 245 a ff.; Republic, 595 a ff., 605 c ff. The play-dimension ofAttic theatre is aptly describen in HomoLudens, 144-45. 1 18 Stefano lcdrkicwicz ignorance, and the wildest paradoxes are thus easily produced. Plato's Euthy'demus attests how this display of verbal tricks delights at least some specific audiences. Plato's own capability to further exploit play-elements is proved by his Sy,m- posion. The Greek drinking-party of Classical times takes place in a ritually consecrated room, which has been separated from "ordinary" life and thus designed, among other things, to create a "ludic space". Here "symposial fight" erupts: often mere drinking-competitions, but also plays of physical skill (such as the kottahos performed with drinking-vessels), singing of skolia, verbal games, amusing enigmas (the c'riphoi)", and conversation on all sub- jects. This agonistic, playful setting is chosen by Plato to have Socrates des- cribing what could well have impressed most contemporaries as a truly un- common, almost unreal, experience: the teaching of wisdom to him, a man, by Diotima, a woman... " Plato, however, condemns the sophists' orgiastic use of paradox. The eristic disposition of these sophoi attests an "almost quixotic indifference""' to even basic constraints of common sense: how could the sophistic style of word- playing foster theoretical knowledge? playing, paizein, is one thing; search- ing in earnest for the truth is another". Against the principle of play, Plato intends to set the principle of seriousness in intellectual research. But how does Plato carry on his project? Precisely by calling onto the stage another sophist, the shrewdest of them all, Socrates. The style of argument used by Socrates in an essential passage of Mende is fully eristic and the foundation of sophia proposed in this dialogue pushes paradox to an appa- rent point of self-contradiction. Having no use for the currently accepted re- presentations and (mis) conceptions, the sage claims to know nothing. The Platonic philosophical quest starts from a traditional assumption: that sophia requires a paradoxical mood of expression. Indeed, Socratic ignorance fits into pre-existing patterns. Heraclitus, again, ,,was quite astonishing (thaumasios) from his very childhood, since, as a young man, he used to say that he knew nothing, and he claimed that he had grasped everything when he had grown up"". The idea that supreme wisdom might he owned by the most unexpected (that is, supposedly igno- rant) person is an old one: within the Seven Sages, Myson, declared by the 8. The drinking party, formally dedicated to Dionysos, is a ritually self-contained society, a thia- sos, (P. von der Muon, "Das griechische Symposion" = KleineSchriflen, Basel 1976, 489-90). The notion of "symposial fight" is due to E. PEWLtzER, "Della zuffa simpotica", in M. VETTA (ed.), Poesia esimposio nella Grecia antica, Roma-Bari, 1983, 31-41. 9. See M. HALPERIN, "Why is Diotima a Woman? Platonic Ems and the Figuration of Gender", in Before Sexuality. The Construction ofErotic Experience in Ancient Greek World. Princeton U.P., 1990, 257-308. 10. R.R. BRANHAM, Unruly hloquence. Lucian and the Comedy ofTraditions, Harvard U.P., 1989, 77. 11. Plato, Euthydemus, 283 a. 12. Plato, Meno, 80 e. 13. Diogenes Laertius, Lives ofthePhilosophers, IX 5. The List Champion of Play-Wisdom: Aesop 119 Delphic oracle to be the wisest of all men, was a poor peasant in an ob- scure village'. Socrates too, even before he had begun his investigation, had been identified in the same oracular way as the wisest among the Greeks''. At the moment, he could hardly believe it; but at the end of his life he had become more self-conscious and told his judges that, instead of being pun- ished for having undermined traditional beliefs, he was entitled to lifelong public maintenance for having devoted himself to instructing the polis"'. By uttering this ironical paradox, possibly the sharpest heard so far in Athens, Socrates added a new version to the existing models of the sophos: the Mad Wise Man. In playing this variation to an old role, Socrates was also in tune with his own times. For even representations of a world turned upside-down had now become institutionalized into the collective capital of knowledge. Athe- nian classical culture made systematical use of the literary form of the theatre pl.iy, wonderfully suited to an oral communication system, and in it comedy was certainly no less important than tragedy. The periodical dramatic agones provided each time fresh messages of wisdom to the whole polls. Tragedy achieved this by inspiring pity and fear, comedy by eliciting laughter; both aimed at rendering the community wiser. Through tragic myth or comic pa- rody, this specific form of play pointed to a "diferent" reality, and thus added a new dimension to the audience's experience of life. Collective knowledge was then fostered by performed fictions; play opened the way to serious- ness; lies introduced truth. The hero of the Socratic dialogues, identified by I3akhtin as the first seriocomic character in Western tradition, is akin to some of Aristophanes' heroes, those burlesque sophoi whose methodical madness finally triumphs over the wisdom of their opponents. 3. Aesop andplay-knou'ledge. This is the cultural framework where another bizarre Wise Man joins the game of play-knowledge: the story-teller Aesop, first mentioned in Herodotus' Stories". Aesop's popularity in Athens in the second half of V Century B.C. is attested by Aristophanes' comedies'". His name is from now on linked to the traditio- nal strange little stories which, since Hesiod's days, had been used to en- force an argument in discussion. The Aesopic fables are, broadly speaking, tales where non-human agents (usually animals are enlisted) act as if they posses- sed human capabilities, but, at the same time, obey their "natural" attribu- 14. Diogenes Laertius, Lives..., 1 106-8. 15. Plato, Apology ofSocrates, 20e - 23c. 16. Plato, Apology ofSocrates, 36 h-e. 17. 11 134-5. 18. Aristophanes, Birds, 47l If. 651-53 ff.; Peace, 129-30; Wasps, 566, 1399-1405, 1446-48. 120 Stclant> Jcdrkicwici tions'": the effect is an ironical reference to human reality. Aristophanes asso- ciates these fables to the comic brand of sophia; and Socrates connects some paradoxical modes of enquiry to the Aesopic way of representing reality. In that most utopian of comedies, the Birds, a fable provides the relevant piece of evidence in a discussion. The Hoopoe is suggesting an alliance be- tween birds and men; Peisthetairos objects, stating, on Aesop's authority, that any partnership between wingless and winged beings is contrary to nature and cannot hold: at first the fox and the eagle established a very human re- lation, friendship (koinonia), but ended up by wildly devouring each other's babies"'. Always in the Birds, the fable of the lark has the same rhetorical function (a "factual" proof): the birds are the most ancient beings in the whole world, since, when his father died, the lark could not entomb him on Earth, which did not yet exist, and had to bury him in his own head. Accor- cling to Aristophanes, Aesop is once again the author of this little piece of aetiological nonsense''. He can also he invested with the full authority of play-wisdom: as a character of the Birds says, the fact of not being much ac- quainted with him is a proof of being "ignorant and stupid"". In I Century A.D., liabrius again describes Aesop as the specialist of utopian wisdom, the recorder of events which took place in the Golden Age when men, animals and plants spoke one and the same language-". But Aesopic story-telling as a support for sophia is by no means restricted to comic contexts. One of Socrates' verbal improvisations is a fable "as Aesop could have told, had he thought of it"''. In order to point out the relationship between two opposite entities, Pleasure and Pain, Socrates tells that, since the two went on quarrelling all the time, Divinity, unable to separate them, bound their heads together, the result being that whoever wants to get one is compelled to take the other as well';. Socrates is making use of this fantasy to describe a very paradoxical, but also real, personal experience (he is in jail and, while massaging his leg which has just been taken out of the chains, he feels physical pleasure taking the place of the previous pain: how strange, hos atopon, he exclaims). Here is the starting point of a philosophical dis- cussion of the connection between opposites: how can one avoid saying that Simmias is both tall and small, and so on...-`. The Aesopic fable, here a small piece of humorous aetiological research, is the first of a series of questions on the real world. This could leave the impression that the play-element has, after all, only an 19. Src M. N0Ir.v,vR1, La Fable antique, Kohenhavn 196-1, 68 ff.; and my Sa/x're e Paradosso >u'llAittichita, Ecopo e la%at'olct, Roma 1989, 224 ff. 20. Aristophanes, Bircls, vv. 651-53. 21. Aristophanes, Birds, vv. -172---. 22. Aristophanes, Bircls, v. -+71. 23. Bahrius, Mi'thictnrhs, Prol. I, vv. 1-16. 24. Plato, Phaedo, 60 c, 1-2. 25. Plato, Phaedo, 60 h-c. 26. Plato, Phaedo, 102 h and if. The fast Champion of Play-Wisdom: Aesop 121 auxiliary function. But this would not be supported by the wording through which Plato describes the Socratic activity of inventing a fable: extemporary story-telling in Aesop's style is denoted here by the verb enenoesen, which belongs to the semantic field of intellectual production, of "thought" in its full and weighty meaning-,. A bizarre paradox, then, has lead to authentic knowledge; play has produced sophia '". But the play-wisdom traditionally possessed by Aesop can only look whimsi- cal to Aristotle. For the latter, knowledge must proceed from intellectual dis- cipline and systematical research; logically formal procedures in philosophy have no need of a fable as a scientific auxiliary. This attitude is all the more evident since Aristotle can reproduce fragments of Aesopic narrative even in works devoted to natural science. In the Meteorology, for instance, he quotes in full one of Aesop's aetiologies, the tale of how Earth gradually emerged from the primeval waters. By telling it, Aesop had gained the upper hand against some shipyard workers who were laughing at him, possibly because of his traditional deformity. Here the tale is reproduced to jeer at Democritus' assertions about changes in the mass of the sea: a theory which, according to Aristotle, is just as laughable as Aesop's story means to be2". So much for science, this Aristotelian creature; but what about practical sophia? Aristotle is aware of the way an oral communication system works, and how valuable allegorical devices can be in it. The fable, in this context, takes the rank of a formal rhetorical instrument, beloging to the class of fic- tional paradigms. No doubt, it is an instrument of practical persuasion, not of theoretical demonstration, but it can he remarkably effective if the speaker needs to address the common people, the demos (still the formal sovereign of polis in IV Century B.C.)"'. To this effect, there is the need for the capacity to introduce some tale suitable to the actual context; that is, to build analo- gies between illusion and reality, "which is easier if one thinks as a philo- sopher". One whole chapter of the Rhetorics consequently depicts Aesop and Stesichonus (a name emerging from the wisdom-poetry tradition) en- gaged in rhetorical action and using the fable as a weapon. Both are taking sides in a political decision-making process. They are putting their good ad- vice at the disposal of the community on a current question, an advice offered against the predominant trends of public opinion which it tries to influence by means of a deliberate use of paradox. In fact, with his tale of the fox and the hedgehog, Aesop demonstrates that the very decision the Ekklesia of the 27. See the relevant discussion by D. SABBAmccI, 11 mito, it nto elastoria, Roma 1978, 199-201. 28. As in many other Platonic pages: HomoLudens, 149-150 provides a first approximation to the seriocomic in Plato's thought. 29. Aristotle, Meteorology, II, 365 h 10 ff. (the point is perhaps that all sea water would he sucked in by Earth at the end of the process, and then shiphuilders would prove as useless as lane Aesop, but still not as wise). 30. Aristotle, Rhetorics, II 20, 1393 h 8 - 1394 a 2. 31. Aristotle, Rhetorics, 1394 a 5. 122 Stefano jcdrkic\vicz Samians was on the verge of adopting would actually backfire against the true interests of the demos. An as apparently frivolous utterance as the fable can thus leave its mark on the most serious part of reality, the realm of politics: even for scientifically- minded Aristotle, play and paradox can still, for practical purposes, and in specific circumstances, open an exclusive way to truth. 4. From Mad Socrates to Aesop once again. Starting from IV Century B.C., the Socratic model of enquiry has a large number of followers. Among these, the Cynics in particular carry on the tra- dition of a "critical" research, which opposes current beliefs and exhibits a sophia well equipped with paradoxes. These particular Socratics appreciate the analogical effectiveness of the Aesopic fables. They exploit their ironical propensities and are fond of their characters, these animals which reflect hu- man nature at its deepest and act as human beings would if taken away from civilisation to the sphere of theria, the non-human nature. "Socrates has turned mad", is Plato's comment at seeing sophia falling into the hands of Diogenes the Cynic". The Mad Wise Man is back again: this time, he plays havoc with traditional values and communal beliefs. He ne- gates the status of the polis as the highest structure of civilization, and declares the very notion of social hierarchy to he valueless (no revolutionary implica- tion: no social system will ever he better or worse than any other one"). On this basis Diogenes, sold as a slave after he had been captured by pirates, can advertise himself as a master to the prospective buyers'. The real supe- riority is the superiority of mind, that is the Cynic way of viewing the world (and living in it), which scorns or inverts established values. From the Hellenistic age to the times of the Graeco-latin koine civilization of the Empire, gernerations of these special "Socratics" will play again and again, with some rather unsubstancial variations, the role of Mad Wise Men pouring scorn and abuse on all other practitioners of knowledge. Those members of the sect who show a milder attitude, along the tradition initiated in II century B.C. by Bion of Boristhenes or Menippus of Gadara, will also make use of fables in order to impress some truths on the audience, by means of little stories which convey their message in a pleasant and convincing form. But in general a humourless harshness penetrates the fables used in the Cynic perorations" to such an extent, that, in I Century A.D., Babrius has to introduce his own elegantly versified Aesopic collection with the assuran- 32. Diogenes Laertius, Lives... VI 54. 33. See M.I. FINLEY, AspectsofAntiquity, Harmondsworth 1977, 87-88. 34. Diogenes Laertius, Lives, VI 29-30. 35. See F.R. ADRAoos, Historia de la Fdbula greco-latina, I, Editorial de la Ilniversidad Complu- tense (Madrid), 1979, 551 ff., 619 ff. The last Champion of Play-Wisdom: Aesop 123 cc that he has "softened the hard chords" of these reputedly "stinging ver- ses,, The fact is that the Cynics are not so different from their rivals. As all other "lovers of sophia", by now, they take themselves very seriously'". Competi- tion for wisdom is carried on by whole philosophical schools: Academics, Stoics, Epicureans, and many more, and always with the Cynics as perennial outsiders. But each sect is engaged in a perpetual fight in order to assert the authority of its Founding Father and has no time for joking or playing. The most Socratic of all traits, the perpetually ironical turn of mind of the Athe- nian sophos, is now mainly a source of embarassment. The Stoics for in- stance are ready to pay reverence to the archetypal Martyr ofPhilosophy', but turn away from the paradoxical elements in his thought and indeed from any flash of madness in the Wise Man'". Socrates' irony is unacceptable to Epicu- rus" and his later followers; Cicero remembers how his philosophy teacher, the Epicurean Zeno of Sidon, one of the most learned men of the time, sta- ted his repulsion for the very idea of play-wisdom by means of an insulting definition of Socrates: scurra Atticus, the Athenian buffoon". Cicero admits jokes as a rhetorical device, but of course only in order to con- vey serious messages to the audience on very specific occasions (the exam- ple he gives refers typically to symposial conversation)'. In fact, general lack of a sense of humour prevails among men of science of all schools. One has to wait until the II Century A.D. for Lucian, a rhetor, to poke fun at all of them. Rhetors can also he very serious, as befits pillars of the existing educa- tional and social order, the best practitioners of culture entrusted with the education of "elites". They call themselves "sophists", claiming that they are in charge of the extant patrimony of words, of the whole sophia preserved in writing since Homeric times; in this capacity, they are also entitled to prac- tice the seriocomic genres. In I Century AD., Dio of Prusa writes "little plays", pai, nia (the Sophist Thrasymachus, in V Century B.C., had used the same la- bel for his collection of aporias), praising the Hair, the Parrot or the Fly (the latter, a subject for Lucian too). These "second Sophists" are once more prac- tising knowledge in its most verbal dimension, which again means, unfortu- nately, its most self-satisfied and unproductive. The still existing creative pos- sihilities of play-wisdom are exploited only by Lucian. He is masterly however, and in his jocular style he attemps a wholesome reshaping of tradi- tion, systematically parodying it. His renovation of the seriocomic genre is in- 36. Bahrius, MPthiamhs, Pro/. 1, 19; transl. B.E. Perry. 37. See L. JERPHAGNON, "Le philosophe et son image clans I'Empire d'Auguste a la Tetrarchie", Bull. Ass. G. Bude, 1981, 167-82. 38. See A. RoNCONi, "Exitus illustrium virorum", in ReallexikonfurAntike and C,'hristentum, vol. V1, 1966, 1.258-60. 39. See A.A. LONG, "Socrates in Hellenistic Philosophy", CQ88, 1988, 151-2 40. Cicero, Brutus 292 = Epicurus, frag. 231 tJsener. 41. Cicero, On theNatureofthe Gods, I 91. 42. Cicero, The Orator, 11 250. 12, Stefano ledrkieww ic/ deed an effort to produce new meanings by playing with the old ones". The solemn, often pompous, wisdom of so many professional Wise Men, both philosophers and rhetors, has then called for a new flash of philosophic folly. Lucian follows the learned tradition; but a similar reaction appears at lower level as well. And the Mad Wise Man comes once more onto the stage as the hero of a rough, vulgar but nevertheless philosophical tale, which takes Aesop as its protagonist. Aesop's features now take their final shape in a formal biography, the so- called Life ofAesop, whose different anonymous versions seem to have been worked out between the I and the IV Century A.D., crystallizing mainly in the II Century''. This is definitely a "popular" tale. Neither in form nor in content (particularly in version G) does it match the requirements of "high" literature". Vulgarisms in word and action prove that this book did not in- tend to fulfill the expectations of an educated audience. In the period of the Second Sophistic, Graeco-Latin fiction is normally written according to the taste of the pepaideumenos, the cultivated if not thouroughly learned gentle- man: the Life ofAesop has been recognized as the only exception in taking the opposite view,"'. Still, remnants of a learned tradition lurk behind the plebeian coarseness. The biography faithfully relates the tale of Aesop's death in Delphi, a feature already well known to Herodotus and Aristophanes-. It includes anecdotes and utterances typical of traditional sophia and even his contamination with the old Oriental Romance ofAhigar (a courtly literary production, by the way, no popular piece of oral narrative) could betray Classical influences"; finally, Aesop, an expert in play-wisdom, is here the supreme sage. The man is given to rhetorical agones, verbal jousts fought mainly against his philo- sopher-master Xanthos. He is skilled at resolving enigmas and at playing with words, and always ready to strike at his dialectic opponent with an unexpected pointe, which will put the laughing audience on his side. This character can also be considered as an outcome of the deliberate vulga- rization of the Socratic tradition by generations of Cynic street-preachers". True to this philosophical bent, he keeps an outsider's view on contempo- rary culture and education (this fits well with the tradition making him a non-Greek by birth). A second Socrates, he is spiritually attractive despite his 43. BRANIIAM, UnntlyEloquence, 211-15. 44. J.J. WINKLER, AuctorandActor. A narratological Reading ofApuleius:c Golden Ass, University of California Press, 1985, 279. 45. See A. LA PENNA, "II Romanzo d'Esopo", Athenaeum N.S. 40, 1962, 265-66; and also WINKLER, AuctorandActor, 280-82. 46. G. ANDERSON, The Novel in the Graeco-Roman World, London-Sydney-Totowa, 1984, 50-51 and 101. 47. Herodotus, Stories, II 13-+-5; Aristophanes Wasps, vv. 1,146-48. 48. The relevance of Ahiyar in V Century B.C. Greek Culture is highlighted by M.J. LUZZA1TO, "Grecia e vicino Oriente: tracce della "Storia di Ahiyar nella cultura greca tra VI e V secolo a.C.", Quaderni diStoria XVIII-36, 1992, 5-84. 49. SapereeParadosso..., 205-12.