The Language Environment of First Century Judaea Jewish and Christian Perspectives Series Editorial Board David Golinkin – Alberdina Houtman Marcel Poorthuis – Joshua Schwartz Freek van der Steen Advisory Board Yehoyada Amir – David Berger – Shaye Cohen Judith Frishman – Martin Goodman Clemens Leonhard – Tobias Nicklas – Eyal Regev Gerard Rouwhorst – Seth Schwartz – Yossi Turner VOLUME 26 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/jcp The Language Environment of First Century Judaea Jerusalem Studies in the Synoptic Gospels Volume Two Edited by Randall Buth and R. Steven Notley LEIDEN | BOSTON Bar-Ilan University, Israel University of Tilburg: Faculty of Catholic Theology, The Netherlands Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies, Israel BIInangrg-eeIbblaoonrrgg U RRneeinnvnenerersrtitt Cy C,e Inesntreatree rflo fro Jre Jreursuasleamlem St uSdtuiedsi,e Bsa, rI-sIrlaanel University, Israel UBUannrii-vvIeelarrsnsiit tUyy onoffiv TTeirlibslbiutuyr,rg gI: s:Fr aFacaeucllutylt yo fo Cf aCthaothlico lTich eTohloegoyl,o gy, The editors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. TThhee NNeetthheerrllaannddss University of Tilburg: Faculty of Catholic Theology, This boo k is printed onS TaPcchrhoiedet ec-Nfhsrteetaetenhr tpeI rTanlhpasteneiortd.ulsoteg iocafl JUewniivsehr sSittuy,d Tiehse, NIsertaheelrlands Library o f Congress CaIStSnaccghlhoeeegbcciohnhrtgtgee- rriR n IIe-nnPnssuttniibtteuulritttcee aC ooteiffo n JnJetee wDwri siafsohthar S SJteutrududiseiase,ls eI, msIrsa rSealteuldies, Israel Interaction between Judaism and Christianity in history, religion, art and literature / edited Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, Israel Tbyh eM edaitrocres lg Praoteofurtlhlyu aicsk, nJoowshleudage S thceh fwinaarntczi,a lJ osusepppohr tT ouf rtnhee rI.ngeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data p. cm. — (Jewish and Christian perspectives series ; v. 17) Includes bibliographical references. TThhei se dbiotoorsk girsa pterfuinlltye adc konno wacleiddg-ef rtheee fpinaapnecira.l support of the Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. T heI SlaBnNgu 9a7ge8 -e9n0v-i0ro4n-1m7e1n5t0 o-f3 f i(rhsat rcdebnatuckry : Jauldka. epaa /p eedr)i ted by Randall Buth and R. Steven Notley.   1p. a gJueds acmism—--(RJeewlaistiho anns-d- CChhrriissttiiaann iptye—rspHecisttioverys. s 2e.r i eCs h; vriosltuiamneit y26 a)n (dJe oruthsaelre rme lsigtuiodniess— in the sLTJyuinhbdoiraspa ibstrimyoc o o—gkof sHiCsp ieopslntrsoi gn;r rVtyee.o sd lsIu .oCm Pnaeo ta oTacrwliotdhog-)uifnriesg,e- Mi npa-aPpruceebr.ll,i c1a9t5io5n- IDI.a Stachwartz, Joshua. III. Turner, Joseph. Includes bibliographical references and index. IIL Sn BBitbNeMrra a95rc7y38t 5i-oo9.fIn0 4 C-b80eo45t-n6w2g 62er30ee4n0s0s8 - JC6 u d(ahataaislromdgb iaanncgkd- i :n Ca-lhPkr.u ipsbtaliipacenarit)ti—yo ninI SD BhaNitsat 9o7r8y,- 9r0e-li0g4i-o2n6,4 a4r1-t0 a (ned-b loitoekr)a tu1.r eB /ib eled. iNteedw Tb e y2s 9tMa6m.a3re’cn9et6l— 0P9oL—oarndtghcuu2ai2gs ,e ,J ostsyhlue.a  2S.c hSwynaorptzt,i cJ opsreopbhle mTu. r3n.e rJ.udaea (Region) 4. Language and languages.  I I .  n Bt e u r tpa h .c , t c Ri mo a n n. d—b ae l tl w. ( JI eeI .e w Nn i o sJ htu l eda y an , idR s m .C S tha e nr v ide s t n iC a. nh r p isetri aspneitcyt iivne sh si setroierys, ;r ve.l i1g 7io) n, art an d literatu2re0 0/8 e0d3i1te2d9 5 byI Mncalurcdeels P boiobrlitohgurias,p Jhoischaul are Sfecrhewnacertsz. , Joseph Turner. B S2I 3S6Bp1.N.3 c. Lm9377.8 —2-091 0 4(-J0e4w-i1s7h1 a5n0d-3 C (hharirsdtibaanc kp e: rasplke. cptiavpees rs)e ries ; v. 17) 2 215.I. 4n J—culdudadcie2ssm3 b-i-bRlieolagtriaopnhs-ic-Calh rreifsetiraennictyes—. History. 2. Christianity and other religions— 2013048855 J udIaSiBsmN— 97H8i-s9to0r-0y.4 -I1. 7P1o5o0r-t3h u(hisa, rMdbaarccke l,: 1al9k5. 5p-a IpIe. rS) chwartz, Joshua. III. Turner, Joseph. 1. Judaism--Relations--Christianity—History. 2. Christianity and other religions— J uBdMai5sm35—.I4H8i5st6o 2ry0. 0 I8. Poorthuis, Marcel, 1955- II. Schwartz, Joshua. III. Turner, Joseph. T h2i9s6 p.u3’b9li6c0a9ti—ond hca2s2 b een typeset in the multilingual ‘Brill’ typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering L a B t iM n , 5 i p3 a 5 , . IG 4 r8 e 5 e 6k , 2 a 0 n 0 d 8 C y r i l l i c , t h i s t y p e f a ce is especia lly suitable for use in the human2i0ti0e8s.0 31295 F o2r9 m6.o3r’e9 6in0f9o—rmdacti2o2n , please see brill.com/brill-typeface. 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No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in TaIpD hrriieCsnt brt Pioeeuodvbka i llnii sss hytpshertrieens m,nt eMe,d to ahorrn ett riranalcunaisdsn m-Ndfrsiietjtehe opdfa fipn Pe aru.nbyli sfhoermrs aonr db yV aSnPy. means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV Fees are subject to change. provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. printed in the netherlands Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands Contents Introduction: Language Issues Are Important for Gospel Studies  1 Randall Buth Sociolinguistic Issues in a Trilingual Framework  7 1 The Origins of the “Exclusive Aramaic Model” in the Nineteenth Century: Methodological Fallacies and Subtle Motives  9 Guido Baltes 2 The Use of Hebrew and Aramaic in Epigraphic Sources of the New Testament Era  35 Guido Baltes 3 Hebraisti in Ancient Texts: Does Ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean “Aramaic”?  66 Randall Buth and Chad Pierce 4 The Linguistic Ethos of the Galilee in the First Century C.E.  110 Marc Turnage 5 Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus’ Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors  182 Serge Ruzer Literary Issues in a Trilingual Framework  207 6 Hebrew, Aramaic, and the Differing Phenomena of Targum and Translation in the Second Temple Period and Post-Second Temple Period  209 Daniel A. Machiela 7 Distinguishing Hebrew from Aramaic in Semitized Greek Texts, with an Application for the Gospels and Pseudepigrapha  247 Randall Buth vi contents 8 Non-Septuagintal Hebraisms in the Third Gospel: An Inconvenient Truth  320 R. Steven Notley Reading Gospel Texts in a Trilingual Framework  347 9 Hebrew-Only Exegesis: A Philological Approach to Jesus’ Use of the Hebrew Bible  349 R. Steven Notley and Jeffrey P. Garcia 10 Jesus’ Petros–petra Wordplay (Matthew 16:18): Is It Greek, Aramaic, or Hebrew?  375 David N. Bivin 11 The Riddle of Jesus’ Cry from the Cross: The Meaning of ηλι ηλι λαμα σαβαχθανι (Matthew 27:46) and the Literary Function of ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι (Mark 15:34)  395 Randall Buth Index of Ancient Sources  423 Subject Index   448 Introduction: Language Issues Are Important for Gospel Studies Randall Buth The articles in this collection demonstrate that a change is taking place in New Testament studies. Throughout the twentieth century, New Testament scholar- ship primarily worked under the assumption that only two languages, Aramaic and Greek, were in common use in the land of Israel in the first century. Studies on the Gospels have assumed that Aramaic was the only viable language for Jesus’ public teaching or for any early Semitic records of the Jesus movement, whether oral or written. Hebrew was considered to be restricted primarily to educated religious teachers and unsuitable for speaking parables to peasants, especially in the Galilee. However, during the twentieth century, specialists working in the field of Mishnaic Hebrew have proven that three languages, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, were in common use.1 Their studies have moved Hebrew out of a restricted, marginal status within first-century language use. The articles in this volume investigate various areas where increasing linguistic data and changing perspectives impact New Testament studies. In some cases, prevalent assumptions on language use within the field of New Testament studies are challenged and found wanting. Older data have confirmed newer views when read carefully in context. Several articles go beyond the socio- linguistic questions and look at literary and interpretational questions. The fuller language background of the Gospels raises new questions that can affect the evaluation of texts and literary relationships. Language Studies Impact Historical Understandings Five articles relate to the general sociolinguistic situation in the land of Israel during the first century. The first article in the collection looks at the history of New Testament studies and explores why, at the end of the 19th century, scholars assumed a two-language paradigm: Guido Baltes, “The Origins of the ‘Exclusive Aramaic Model’ in the Nineteenth Century: Methodological Fallacies and Subtle Motives.” That paradigm became a consensus to the point 1 Recently, Steven E. Fassberg, “Which Semitic Language Did Jesus and Other Contemporary Jews Speak?” CBQ 74–2 (April 2012), 263–280. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004�644�0_��� 2 buth that scholars did not feel obligated to defend it. The interesting question is how such a consensus could arise when the available data up until the twenti- eth century was so little? Guido Baltes finds that a multiplicity of factors were responsible for this state of affairs. This article is followed by his survey of epi- graphic evidence, “The Use of Hebrew and Aramaic in Epigraphic Sources of the New Testament Era.” Only trilingual models can adequately account for the multi-register and sometimes surprising data that has accumulated during the twentieth century. An additional support for the “trilingual perspective” comes through a care- ful re-investigation of the language names. Primary Greek lexica inform begin- ning students of the Greek New Testament that Ἑβραϊστί may mean “Jewish Aramaic.” Buth and Pierce, “Hebraisti in Ancient Texts: Does Ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean ‘Aramaic’?,” investigate that claim and demonstrate that the meaning “Jewish Aramaic” for Ἑβραϊστί cannot be justified. Standard resources still appear to reflect the defective situation described in Baltes’ first article so that many lexica and Bible translations will need correction. Marc Turnage’s “The Linguistic Ethos of the Galilee within the First Century C.E.,” addresses the general sociological and historical issues related to the eth- nic background of the Galilee. He challenges a frequently encountered opinion that the Galilee was a region that had recently been converted and Judaized and he provides a more comprehensive perspective in light of the historical and archaeological data. Our understanding of historical attitudes within particular communities can also be enriched. Serge Ruzer, “Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus’ Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors,” shows that early Syriac authors seem not to reflect the attitudes that are associated with the late Byzantine and modern eras—namely, viewing Jesus as an Aramaic- and non-Hebrew speaker. While necessarily tentative, Ruzer’s study helps scholars to view the historical processes involved in the history of Gospel interpretation and in Syriac studies. Literary Studies Interact with the Language Background In “Hebrew, Aramaic, and the Differing Phenomena of Targum and Translation in the Second Temple Period and Post-Second Temple Period,” Daniel Machiela explores translation phenomena in the late Second Temple period. Targumic studies have a wide range of complicated issues with which to deal, never- theless, Gospel studies have sometimes assumed an established, pre-Christian targumic background. Machiela’s study suggests that targums and Hebrew-to- INTRODUCTION: LANGUAGE ISSUES & GOSPEL STUDIES 3 Aramaic translation are primarily a post-New Testament phenomenon and in some cases probably originating outside the land of Israel. The Gospel of Mark has often been characterized as exhibiting Aramaic influence, as is illustrated in recent monographs.2 Such claims require an inves- tigation into the identification and differentiation of Aramaic and Hebrew influence within Greek documents of the period. This is addressed in the study by Randall Buth, “Distinguishing Hebrew from Aramaic in Semitized Greek texts, with an Application for the Gospels and Pseudepigrapha.” One result of this study undermines the plausibility that Mark had an Aramaic source. The same study contributes to our understanding of the linguistic profiles of Jewish Greek literature, which includes the Synoptic Gospels, in the Second Temple Period. The amount of biblical phraseology in Luke has led to a common expla- nation that Luke has gathered much of his phraseology from the Greek Bible, the “Septuagint.” This explanation, of course, begs the question for another phenomenon, “non-Septuagintal Hebraisms.” Steven Notley’s “Non- Septuagintal Hebraisms in the Third Gospel: An Inconvenient Truth,” investi- gates Hebraisms that could not have been learned by Luke from the LXX. The existence of Hebraisms in Luke’s Gospel is a challenge to common positions on Lukan composition. If these Hebraisms are not in Mark or Matthew, then Luke would appear to have a Hebraic-Greek source that is not dependent on those two Gospels. Language Studies Impact the Reading of Gospel Texts Our general picture of the historical Jesus is directly affected by language. In what language did Jesus teach, and what was the make-up of his audience linguistically? The study by Steven Notley and Jeffrey Garcia, “Hebrew-only Exegesis: A Philological Approach to Jesus’ Use of the Hebrew Bible,” provides evidence that connects Jesus’ teaching directly to the Hebrew Bible. This natu- rally informs the reading of Gospel pericopae. Two of the volume’s articles bring new linguistic evidence to the interpreta- tion of Gospel texts. David Bivin’s, “Jesus’ Petros-petra Wordplay (Matt 16:18): 2 Maurice Casey, Aramaic Sources of Mark’s Gospel, Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series, 102, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) and Aramaic Sources to Q: Sources for Gospels of Matthew and Luke (SNTSMS 122; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).