THE PERSISTENCE OF HOPE IN INDIAN COUNTRY: THE LAKOTA/DAKOTA OF SOUTH DAKOTA By Lisa Ann Zeilinger A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In Native American Studies MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana July 2011 © COPYRIGHT by Lisa Ann Zeilinger 2011 All Rights Reserved ii APPROVAL of a thesis submitted by Lisa Ann Zeilinger This thesis has been read by each member of the thesis committee and has been found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citation, bibliographic style, and consistency and is ready for submission to The Graduate School. Dr. Matthew Herman Approved for the Department of Native American Studies Dr. Walter Fleming Approved for The Graduate School Dr. Carl A. Fox iii STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master’s degree at Montana State University, I agree that the Library shall make it available to borrowers under rules of the Library. If I have indicated my intention to copyright this thesis by including a copyright notice page, copying is allowable only for scholarly purposes, consistent with “fair use” as prescribed in the U.S. Copyright Law. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this thesis in whole or in parts may be granted only by the copyright holder. Lisa Ann Zeilinger July 2011 iv DEDICATION This study is dedicated to all the strong indigenous women who have impacted their communities despite incredible odds: those who are well known and those who have contributed in quiet, seemingly simple ways. You have been life-givers, nurturers, activists, teachers and supporters. Your strength and wisdom will inspire and encourage generations to come. Cante wasteya nape ciyuza pe. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to offer thanks to the many kind and generous people of the Lakota and Dakota communities of South Dakota who offered their input and wisdom. It is only by their generosity and consideration that I was able to incorporate the voices of those living the realities of their tribal nations. I would also like to thank Devin Wagner for obtaining permission from the Argus Leader and Steve Young to utilize material from their amazing series, “Growing Up Indian.” vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................1 2. INTERGENERATIONAL HISTORICAL TRAUMA AND HEALING: THE THEORETICAL APPROACH OF MARIA YELLOW HORSE BRAVE HEART .............................................................................................................4 3. LAKOTA AND DAKOTA WOMEN CONFRONTING CRISIS ...............................19 4. LAKOTA YOUTH – WAKANHEJA: THE FUTURE ...............................................33 The Suicide Crisis .........................................................................................................36 The Emergence of Gangs ..............................................................................................42 Hope In the Midst of Crisis ...........................................................................................45 5. THE PERSISTENCE OF HOPE ..................................................................................51 Resistance .....................................................................................................................54 Leadership and Politics .................................................................................................58 Land and Sacred Sites ...................................................................................................63 Economic Development ................................................................................................68 Language Revitalization ...............................................................................................71 Education ......................................................................................................................74 Art and Literature ..........................................................................................................77 Humor and Celebration .................................................................................................80 Spirituality.....................................................................................................................84 6. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................88 REFERENCES CITED ......................................................................................................90 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................105 vii ABSTRACT The intent of this study is to research the existence of hope and its manifestation among the Lakota and Dakota communities of South Dakota, despite centuries of oppression, marginalization, cultural disruption and structural violence. It will be shown that these communities of the Great Sioux Nation exhibit courage and resilience, and that something vital has sustained them for centuries – the element of hope. Utilizing a multidisciplinary approach, this study will first explore historical multigenerational trauma and the theoretical approach of Dr. Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart. The impacts of historical trauma lend to better understanding of the present situation among these communities. Additionally, the issues of violence and abuse are researched in the context of women and youth, those appearing to suffer the greatest impacts. The effects of this violence have produced secondary issues such as critical suicide rates and the emergence of gang activity. Finally, the element of hope is explored as it is manifested among these communities through resistance. Demonstrated in various forms, resistance is a key component in the persistence of hope and possibility. The strength and commitment generated by such efforts address the critical issues impacting these reservation communities, especially the highlighted target groups – women and youth. Interviews among generous participants from Pine Ridge, Crow Creek, Cheyenne River and Lower Brule Reservations in South Dakota lend to the overall substance and credibility of the assertions in this study. They are invaluable in clarifying that, despite incredible odds and what is seemingly interminable crisis, hope exists. Questions asked included: How is hope maintained? How is it manifested? How did it sustain people in the past and what force keeps people moving forward in the face of the paradigm of continued oppression in contemporary societies? The conclusion reached is that despite the impacts of poverty and despair among the Lakota and Dakota, there is a tangible and pervasive element of hope that sustains these communities and has allowed for their continued existence as unique and distinct nations. 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION The impetus for this study is credited to many years of living and working with the Lakota and Dakota in South Dakota, as well as insights gained through the accompaniment of marginalized people in El Salvador during and since their twelve-year civil war. It has become clear that, despite suffering histories of implausible injustice, which were characterized by oppression, marginalization, and subjugation, something integral and remarkable characterized the persistence of these societies. They have not succumbed to nor been consumed by dominance but rather have sought ways to confront injustice, armed with courage and ideals inherent in their particular cultures. Ernst Block has discussed the concept of possibility and how it contributed to hope. Possibility and action allow for the potential for change, and thus hope remains tangible. “But since in man active capacity particularly belongs to possibility, the display of this activity and bravery, as soon as and in so far as it takes place, tips the balance in favour of hope.”1 The tribes of the Great Sioux Nation, including the Lakota and Dakota continue to exist despite a history of incredible confrontation. If they had not resisted their oppressors, if they had lost hope in the face of sustained injustice, they would not be surviving today. This confrontation has at moments in history been corporeal, exhibited in battles, wars and massacres. However, the confrontation of these indigenous nations is 2 far more profound in that it involves the spirit of the people – their courage, their bravery, their determination, and their will. This is spurred by possibility. Hope is completely visceral in the human condition. Bloch writes: Even disappointed hope wanders around agonizing, a ghost that has lost its way back to the cemetery and clings to refuted images. It does not perish through itself, but only through a new form of itself. The fact that we can thus sail into dreams…often of a completely uncovered kind…indicates the great space of the still open, still uncertain life of man.2 The Lakota and Dakota people of South Dakota have been fighting for centuries, physically, economically, culturally, and spiritually. They have endured multifarious oppressive acts that have impacted the historical development of their communities. The consequences have been contemporary societies characterized by extreme poverty, substance abuse, violence, and in some instances, a diminishment of culture and traditions. Through exploration of the resultant contemporary issues, it becomes apparent that the most vulnerable segments of these populations are the women and the youth. However, the far too common despair of those engulfed in an endless chasm of alcohol abuse and poverty, marginalized by the racism and ignorance of others, is overshadowed by the struggle to retain their beautiful, cultural traditions as well as a sense of dignity as a strong and vital people. Possibility is central to the struggle – the possibility that life will improve, that individuals and communities have the competence to make necessary changes, and the wisdom to know what those needed changes are. Paolo Freire contends in Pedagogy of Hope: …While I certainly cannot ignore hopelessness as a concrete entity, nor turn a blind eye to the historical, economic, and social reasons that explain that hopelessness – I do not understand human existence, and the struggle needed to improve it, apart from hope and dream. Without a minimum of hope, we cannot so much as start the struggle. But without