THE JIHADIST DISCOURSE OF AL QAEDA IN THE ARABIAN PENINSULA (2003–2005): REPRESENTATIONAL, INTERTEXTUAL AND ARGUMENTATIVE ANALYSIS Hadi Alhussin A. Alsamdani A thesis submitted for the award of Doctor of Philosophy (Integrated) School of English Literature, Languages and Linguistics Newcastle University United Kingdom November 2017 Abstract This thesis conducts a critical analysis of jihadist discourse. This is achieved by qualitatively analysing the content of Sawt al-jihad, a propagandistic e-magazine published by Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) between 2003 and 2005. The aim of the research is to establish how the jihadist worldview is discursively constructed and legitimised. The investigation is in accordance with the research programme of the Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) and draws on an interdisciplinary model to examine the discursive features of jihadist discourse. This model includes Bourdieu’s ‘capital theory’ and ‘symbolic power’, Islamic religious epistemology, the literature on intertextuality and theories connected to Aristotelian topoi. The thesis undertakes a three-pronged analysis. The first is a representational analysis concerned with the discourse topics preferred within AQAP discourse and how the relevant social actors/actions are constructed, focusing on representation of the Self and the Other. The second analysis explores the intertextual connections via which AQAP discourse appeals to, and overlaps with, prior (sacred) texts and hearers’ repertoires of ‘old knowledge’. In this discussion, I attempt to develop a novel and systematic analytic approach to intertextuality for analysing (politico)-religious discourses and to use this approach to analyse the structurings and restructurings of AQAP discourse, which might then be applied to other texts in the same genre. Finally, the third analysis is specifically concerned with the persuasive dimension and attempts to critically identify the topoi AQAP utilises to legitimise the Self and delegitimise the Other. The ultimate aim of this project is thus not only to contribute to the body of knowledge about radical jihadism from a CDA perspective, but also to make a substantial contribution to the study of the discursive construction and reproduction of such ideologies from a wider perspective, too. i Acknowledgements There are several people who deserve special thanks. First and foremost, I offer my gratitude to my supervisors, Dr Majid KhosraviNik and Prof Karen Corrigan. It would have been impossible for me to write this thesis without their advice, motivation and inspiration. I cannot express enough thanks for Majid’s support, guidance and the illuminating discussions I had with him throughout the PhD journey. And I am very much indebted to Karen, who provided me with her care, incisive feedback and encouraging comments throughout each stage of this thesis. Special thanks are due to Dr Beate Müller, whose HASS session, that neatly presented the approaches to intertextuality, came at just the right moment, saving me lots of time and inspiring my approach to intertextuality. Her kind reply to my email after the session and her comments on my ideas will not be forgotten. Sincere thanks go, of course, to my parents for their continuous and endless support and prayers, which helped me more than words can say. I should also express the utmost gratitude to Salha, my wife, and I would just like to say to her: thank you for being who you are. And I dedicate this modest success to the joy of my life – Yazeed and Yaman – for whom I wish bright and successful futures. I am indebted, too, to my fellow PhD students in the writing-up room for the fruitful academic discussions and for surrounding me with support and encouragements throughout the writing- up stage. Many other friends and colleagues deserve special thanks. I cannot name them all here but I would particularly thank Adil al-Dhahrani and Abdulrahman al-Zamil, who were helpful and supportive throughout this stressful journey. And finally, this thesis was made possible by the support I received from my department at Allith University College, UQU, Saudi Arabia, and financial support from the Saudi Cultural Bureau in London, so special thanks go to the helpful staff there, as well. ii Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. vii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ viii List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Overview ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Approaches to terrorism and jihadism .............................................................................. 2 1.3. Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 3 1.4. Rationale of the study ..................................................................................................... 4 1.5. Thesis design ................................................................................................................. 5 Chapter 2 THE SOCIOPOLITICAL CONTEXT .......................................................................... 7 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 7 2.2. What is jihadism? ........................................................................................................... 7 2.3. Jihadism in modern politics ........................................................................................... 10 2.3.1. Pre-Afghan War (socio-revolutionary jihadism) ...................................................... 10 2.3.2. The Afghan War (classical jihadism) ...................................................................... 14 2.3.3. Post-Afghan War (global jihadism) ........................................................................ 17 2.4. Al Qaeda...................................................................................................................... 18 2.4.1. Pre-9/11................................................................................................................ 19 2.4.2. Post-9/11 .............................................................................................................. 21 2.5. Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) ................................................................... 21 2.5.1. The Pre-2003 AQAP ............................................................................................. 22 2.5.2. Post-2003 AQAP .................................................................................................. 23 2.6. Al Qaeda structure and fighter categorisations ................................................................ 25 2.7. Al Qaeda’s activism: guerrilla warfare? ......................................................................... 26 2.8. AQ(AP) and the media .................................................................................................. 28 2.9. Chapter summary ......................................................................................................... 30 Chapter 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................. 33 3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 33 3.2. Synthesis of theories ..................................................................................................... 33 3.3. Critical Discourse Analysis ........................................................................................... 35 3.3.1. Principal concepts of CDA ..................................................................................... 39 iii Discourse and text ............................................................................................. 39 Context ............................................................................................................ 43 Power ............................................................................................................... 45 Critique ............................................................................................................ 46 3.4. Symbolic power and discourse habits ............................................................................ 47 3.5. Knowledge management .............................................................................................. 50 3.5.1. The epistemological background ............................................................................ 51 3.5.2. Ideology as identity............................................................................................... 55 3.6. Chapter ....................................................................................................................... 56 Chapter 4 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................... 57 4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 57 4.2. DHA research programme ............................................................................................ 57 4.3. Analytic tools .............................................................................................................. 58 4.3.1. Representational strategies .................................................................................... 60 4.3.2. Intertextuality ....................................................................................................... 61 4.3.3. Argumentation: topoi analysis ............................................................................... 63 4.4. Data ............................................................................................................................ 66 4.4.1. Data selection ....................................................................................................... 66 4.4.2. Data sampling ...................................................................................................... 70 4.4.3. Translation and transliteration of the data ............................................................... 71 4.5. Ethical challenges ........................................................................................................ 73 Chapter 5 REPRESENTATION OF THE SOCIAL WORLD, SOCIAL ACTIONS/ACTORS IN THE DISCOURSE OF AQAP ..................................................................................................... 75 5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 75 5.2. The discourse on jihad .................................................................................................. 75 5.2.1. Militarisation ........................................................................................................ 77 5.2.2. Religionisation ..................................................................................................... 80 5.2.3. Religio-politicisation ............................................................................................ 84 5.3. AQAP’s social world ................................................................................................... 86 5.3.1. The Self ............................................................................................................... 88 Genericisation ................................................................................................... 88 Specification ..................................................................................................... 94 5.3.2. The Other-within .................................................................................................. 96 The regime ....................................................................................................... 97 The soldiers .................................................................................................... 102 The ulema ...................................................................................................... 106 5.3.3. The Other-outwith .............................................................................................. 108 iv 5.4. Recap and conclusion ................................................................................................. 111 Chapter 6 ANALYSIS OF INTERTEXTUAL RELATIONS IN AQAP DISCOURSE ............... 113 6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 113 6.2. Appropriating an approach to AQAP intertextual connections ....................................... 113 6.2.1. Genette’s hypertextuality ..................................................................................... 115 6.2.2. Hypotextuality and the analysis of AQAP discourse .............................................. 117 6.3. Analysing Sawt al-jihad’s hypotextual profile .............................................................. 123 6.3.1. Architextual hypotextuality .................................................................................. 124 6.3.2. Paratextual hypotextuality .................................................................................... 130 6.3.3. Meta-textual hypotextuality ................................................................................. 135 6.3.4. Hypotextual micro-structures ............................................................................... 136 Marked hypotexts ............................................................................................ 137 Unmarked hypotexts ........................................................................................ 139 Allusions to hypotexts ..................................................................................... 140 6.4. Recap and conclusion ................................................................................................. 143 Chapter 7 ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENTATION STRATEGIES IN AQAP DISCOURSE ......... 145 7.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 145 7.2. The dynamics of topoi and enthymemes ....................................................................... 145 7.3. Topos of religous authority ......................................................................................... 148 7.3.1. Enthymeme of ħākimiyah .................................................................................... 151 7.3.2. Enthymeme of obligatory/eternal jihad ................................................................. 155 7.3.3. Enthymeme of alliance and disavowal .................................................................. 157 7.4. Topos of defence ........................................................................................................ 158 7.4.1. Enthymeme of defying the occupiers .................................................................... 159 7.4.2. Enthymeme of resisting the regime/security forces ................................................ 161 7.5. Topos of commitment ................................................................................................. 162 7.5.1. Mujahedeen as the epitome of Muslims ................................................................ 162 7.5.2. Enthymeme of inconsistency ................................................................................ 164 7.6. Topos of consequence ................................................................................................. 165 7.6.1. Enthymeme of jihad usefulness ............................................................................ 165 7.6.2. Enthymeme of threat ........................................................................................... 166 7.7. Recap and conclusion ................................................................................................. 167 Chapter 8 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 169 8.1. Overview ................................................................................................................... 169 8.2. Summary and discussion ............................................................................................. 169 8.2.1. Representational analysis ..................................................................................... 169 v 8.2.2. Intertextual analysis ............................................................................................ 172 8.2.3. Argumentative analysis ....................................................................................... 173 8.3. Evaluation of the theoretical/methodological approach ................................................. 174 8.4. Overall conclusion ..................................................................................................... 175 8.5. Recommendations for future research .......................................................................... 177 References ............................................................................................................................... 179 Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 189 Appendix A: Transliterating symbols ..................................................................................... 189 Appendix B: The chronology of the milestones in AQAP’s 2003 campaign .............................. 190 Appendix C: Nominational and predicational realisations ........................................................ 191 Appendix D: Bin Laden’s Declaration .................................................................................... 212 Appendix E: The original version of data excerpts examples by Chapter ................................... 214 vi List of Tables Table 1: Attacks attributed to Al Qaeda between 1995 and 2001 ............................................................. 20 Table 2: AQAP’s leaders up until mid-2005 ........................................................................................ 24 Table 3: A selection of discursive strategies ........................................................................................ 59 Table 4: A sample of verbal expressions using the verbal nouns jihaad and qitaal ...................................... 79 Table 5: Juxtaposition of mujahedeen and security forces .................................................................... 104 Table 6: List of the titles in the first three issues of Sawt al-jihad .......................................................... 131 Table 7. The full tramscription of the Arabic phonemic inventory ......................................................... 189 Table 8: The construction of jihad................................................................................................... 191 Table 9: The construction of the ummah ........................................................................................... 195 Table 10: The construction of the Self ............................................................................................. 196 Table 11: The construction of the Other-within .................................................................................. 204 Table 12: The construction of the Other-outwith ................................................................................ 209 vii List of Figures Figure 1: The three levels of theories (Wodak 2008) ............................................................................................ 34 Figure 2: Interdiscursive and intertextual relationships (Reisigl and Wodak 2001). ............................................. 42 Figure 3: Context levels’ interactions (KhosraviNik 2010: 67). ............................................................................ 44 Figure 4: Cover page (left) and last page (right) of the first issue of Sawt al-jihad. .............................................. 68 Figure 5: Monthly breakdown of material (according to total word count). .......................................................... 69 Figure 6: The volume of the issues according to word count ................................................................................ 70 Figure 7: Discourse topics on jihad ....................................................................................................................... 77 Figure 8: An overall categorisation of Sawt al-jihad discourses. ........................................................................... 87 Figure 9: Intertextual vs hypertextual relations ................................................................................................... 116 Figure 10: Hypotextual relations in Sawt al-jihad ............................................................................................... 118 Figure 11: Model of hypotextuality in AQAP discourse ..................................................................................... 121 Figure 12: The hypotextual connections realised in the content of Sawt al-jihad................................................ 123 Figure 13: Macro-augmentative themes in Sawt al-jihad .................................................................................... 146 Figure 14: The set of topoi and their enthymemes in Sawt al-jihad .................................................................... 146 viii