The Italian ArlllY of World War I CONTENTS SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY & 2 FURTHER READING ITALY AND THE GREAT WAR 3 • Political and strategic background- the Sanussi revolt in Libya - Albania DRDAVIDNICOllEwasborn in1944.Heworked inthe CHRONOLOGY 5 BBCArabicservicebefore going'backtoschool', gaining THE CAMPAIGNS 8 anMAfromtheSchoolof OrientalandAfricanStudies • The Italian Frorn and aPhDfrom Edinburgh • Olher fronL\): \"'estern Front-Albania- Macedonia University.Helatertaught WorldandIslamicartand Libya - Palestine architecturalhistoryat YarmukUniversity,Jordan.He MOBILISATION, STRENGTH & CHARACTER 13 hasbeen aprolificauthorof Ospreytitlesformanyyears. • Recruitmcnt and training- the voluntccr movcment strengths- the rank and file - the officer corps LINE INFANTRY 17 • Unit organisation- conditionsand morale- uniforms insignia- protective& camounageclothing- helmet') & armour- gasmasks ELITE & SPECIALIST UNITS 21 • Granatieri - Bersaglicl-i - AJpini - volunteerorganisations Arditi WEAPONS 24 RAFFAELERUGGERI lives • Rilles- machine guns- autonomous machine gun andworksinBologna,Italy. companies- hand grenades- mortars- name-throwers Hehasa particularpersonal interestinthe armiesand forcesoftheOttoman CAVALRY & MECHANISED TROOPS 34 Empire,andhasillustrated severaltitlesforOsprey TECHNICAL TROOPS 36 onthissubject. • Anillc,y • Engineers SUPPORT TROOPS 39 • Carabineri- Guardia eli Finanza- medical - chaplains COLONIAL & NAVAL TROOPS 41 THE PLATES 43 INDEX 48 FirstpublishedinGreatBntalnin2003byOspreyPublishing Dedication ElmsCourt.ChapelWay.Bailey.OxfordOX29LP.UnitedKingdom Email:[email protected] ForFrederickWilliamNicolle,2338, ACompany,5thBattalion,RoyalWarwickshireRegiment, C2003OspreyPublishingltd. whowassentforofficertrainingbeforehecouldseeItaly Allrightsre5ef'Jed.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofprivatestudy. research,cntlclsmorreView,aspermittedundertheCopyright,Designsand Acknowledgements PatentsAct.1988,nopanofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedIna retrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans.ele<:tronic, electrical,chemical.me<:hanical,optical.photocopying,recordingorotherwise, Theauthorwishestoacknowledgewithgratitudehisdebttothe withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthecopyrightowner.EnqUiriesshould publishedworkofPhilipHaythornthwaite,whoseTheWorldWar beaddressedtothePublishers. OneSourceBook(Arms&ArmourPress,1992)proVidedthebasis forseveralsectionsofthistext. ACIPcataloguerecordforthisbookisavaHablefromtheBritiShLibrary, ISBN1841763985 Artist's Note Editor:MartinWindrow Design:AlanHamp Readersmaycaretonotethattheoriginalpaintingsfromwhichthe IndexbyAlanRutter colourplatesinthisbookwerepreparedareavailableforprivate MapsbyDavidNicolle sale.Allreproductioncopyrightwhatsoeverisretainedbythe Publishers.Allenquiriesshouldbeaddressedto: 03 04 05 06 07 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 RaffaeleRuggeri,vialndlpendenza22,40121 BOlogna,Italy OriginatedbyElectronicPageCompany.Cwmbran.UK PrintedinChinathroughWorldPnntltd. ThePublishersregretthattheycanenterintonocorrespondence uponthismatter. FORACATALOGUEOFALLBOOKSPUBUSHEDBY OSPREYMIUTARYANDAVIATIONPLEASECONTACT: TheMarketingManager,OspreyDirectUK POBox140,Wellingborough,Northants NN82FA,UnitedKingdom Email:[email protected] TheMarketingManager,OspreyDirectUSA c/oMBIPublishing 729ProspectAvenue,Osceola,WI54020,USA EmaIl:[email protected] www.ospreypublishing.com Select Bibliography & Further Reading Thisisonlyasmallselectionoftherelevantbooks;alargenumber McEntee,GirardLindsley,Italy'sPartinWinningtheWorldWar ofworkshavebeenpublishedinItalyoverIhepasl20years. (Princeton. 1934) Bainville,J.,ItalyandtheWar(London, 1916) Mollo,Andrew,&PierreTurner,ArmyUniformsofWorldWarJ Caracciolo,Mario(Ir. U,Mondadorij,ItalyintheWorldWar (Poole, 1977) (Rome, 1936) Page.ThomasNelson,ItalyandtheWorldWar(London, 1921) Cotillo,SalvatoreA,Italyduringthe WorldWar(Boston, 1922) Pieropan,Gianni, 1914-1918StoriadellaGrandeGuerra Curami.A.,&AMassignani(oos.),L'ArtiglieriaItaliananellaGrande (Milan, 1988) Guerra(Novala.1998) Pignato. N.,&F.Cappellano,GliAutovercolidaCombattimento Davanzati. A.F.,TheWarofItaly(Varese, 1918) dell'EsercitoItaliano,vol.1,dalleoriginifinoal1939 FralelJi&Treves(eds.),TheWarinItaly, 9volscombined into2 (Aome, 2002) n (Rome,1916-1 Salandra.A.,ItalyandtheGreatWar(London. 1932) Giachi,Antonio,TruppeColoniali!tafiane:Traditioni, Colorl, Schindler,J.R.,Isonzo: TheForgottenSacrificeoftheGreatWar Medaglie(Florence, 197n (Westport,2001) Haythornthwaite.PhilipJ.,TheWorldWarOneSourceBook Serra.Fabrizio.ItaliaeSenussia(Milan,1933) (London, 1992) Seth,R"Caporetto, theScapegoatBattle(London, 1965) Italy.EsercitoStatoMaggiore,UfficioStorico. L'Esercitoitaliano Thayer,A.J.,ItalyandtheGreatWar(Madison,1964) nella 1guerramondiale:immagini(Rome. 1978) Trevelyan,G.M" Scenesfrom /faly'sWar(London, 1919) Low,S.,ItalyintheWar(London. 1916) Villari, Luigi.TheWarontheItalianFront(London,1932) Mantoan.N.• ArmiedEquipaggiamentidel/'esercitoitalianonella Viotti,A"CUniformeGrigio-Verde(1909-1918)(Rome,1994) GrandeGuerra 1915-1918(Novale. 1999) Vitale, M.A.,L'lta/iainAfrica, Vol. 1:COperadeli'Esercito Marzettl,P"LaGuerraItalo-Austriaca 1915-1918:uniformi, 1885/1943{Rome,1960} distintivi, equipaggiamentoedarmi(Parma. 1998) Vivian, Herbert,ItalyatWar(London, 1917) Mattalia.U.,CronachedellaGrandeGuerra 1915-/918:Altipiani, Vafsugana. Pasubio, Isonzo, Piave(Valdagno.1992) THE ITALIAN ARMY OF WORLD WAR I ITALY AND THE GREAT WAR TALY'SSn"UATIONWASMORECQI\IPI.EX than thatoftheotherm£tiorpowers in the Great War. The uniLCd Kingdom of Italy was a young COUlltl)', which had only been proclaimed in February 1861. The head of sl;llewas King VilLOrio-Emanuele JJJ(1869-1947), who had succeeded to the throne in July 1900 after the assassination of his father Umberto I. Despite considerable industlialisalion in the past 50 rears Italy remained an o\'erwhehningly agt;cultural country, and over lhrcc-quartcrs of the rural population were landless peasants. Under such circumstances Italy could not compete with the other 'Great Powers' in the anns race which dominated Europe pdor to the outbreak of\"orld \\'ar I. Although the Italians had won Libya and the Dodecanese islands ofGreece from Ottoman Turkey in 191I-J2, these had been difficult campaigns which highlighted weaknesses in their armed forces. \\'hile resistance to Italian occupation still continued in the Libyan provincesofTripolitania, Cyrenaicaand Fall..an, Italy herself faced politicallUrmoil \\Thich culminated in 'Red \Veek' inJune 1914. GeneralCountLuigi Cadorna Since 1882 Ital)' had formed part ofa Tdple Alliance with Germany (185G-1928), Chiefofthe and Italy's traditional enemy, the Ilapsburg Empire ofAusu-ia-Hungary. General Staffand commander This alliance was, however, intended as a purely defensive relationship, ofthe ItalianArmy (under and Italy had made clear thatshe would ne\'ergo to waragainst Btitain. the nominal authorityofKing There was littlesU'lJrise when Italy refused tojoin her allies in what\\-as Vittorio-Emanuele III)untillate 1917.ByOctober 1917Gen. widel)' seen as an aggressh·e war in August 1914. Indeed, there was a Cadoma, an irascibleand growing feeling \\'ithin Italy, especiallyamongstanti-clerical and nation intolerantleader,had 'tor alistic l1loderni~ers. that their country should ally herself with France pedoed' 216generals, 255 and Bt;tain, since the defeat of Ausu-ia-Hungar)' might mean the lib colonelsand355battalion eration of /ta/ia Irrede11.la - those parts of the Hapsburg Ernpire which commanderswhodisagreed withordisappointed him. were largelyinhabited by Italians, namely the Trentino in the north and Officerson hisstaffwho the LitLOnll (Godlia, TI-ieste and ncighbolll;ng regions) in the north criticised Cadoma'smethods east. In these regionssupport for union with Italywasstrongestamongst could even find themselves the middle classand, between August 1914 and Italy'sdeclaration ofwar imprisoned- these included on the Central Powers lhe following i\Jay. many Italians fled from the Col. GiulioDouhet, the air warfaretheorist and prophet Trentino and the Lilloral to join the Italian Army. Meanwhile within ofstrategicair power. Italy itself Peppino Garibaldi, grandson ofthe famolls patriotGiuseppe In this portrait Gen. Cadorna Garibaldi, emerged as a leader or the Irredentist movement - namely wearsthetraditional dark those who wamed to fight for Italia I,.,.edpnta. Garibaldi led 4,000 Italian blue uniform which was voluntcers to enlist in the French Foreign Legion, and in winter retained forceremonial wear afterthe introductionoflow 1914/15 they fOllght well on the \Vestern Front. The sun;\'ors subse visibilitygrey-greenuniforms quently relllnled tojoin thc Italian Army once Italy entered the war.1 following thelessonslearned byobserversofthe Russo 1SeeMAA325.FrenchFOffHgfILfJgIOn1914-45.Afterthe.rincorporatlOrlll1totheAlp'andReBngades,some JapaneseWarin 1904-05. membefsofthoselormatlOl'lsarereported10havecontmue<!10wearredshll'tSWIthlhetfunIforms,Inreference 10theIrac:lltlOOaldress01GIUseppeGaribaldfspalnOtvolunteers 3 Between August 1914 and ~Iay 1915 the Italian Anny prepared for the coming conflict while simultaneously facing problcms in seveml parts of Italy's Af'"ican empire. Things ,...ere quiet in Eriu"ea, where the Italians had widespread support, though there was fear ofan Ethiopian invasion. Italy also cultivated good relations with the ruler of the Arab prminccofAsiron theothersideofthe Red Sea.To thesouth, in Italian Somaliland, the Italian gO\'crnment had taken over from a pd\'i:ue trading company in 1905 because the latter could not cope ,\~th a resistance movement led by the Somali poet Muhammad Abd Allah Hassan, known to his foes as the 'Mad Mullah'. In 1914 this leader and his similarly misnamed 'dervish' followers inflicted a series of defeats on the British in thc neighboudng colony of British Somalilancl. The Imlians' biggest problem remained Libra. Ilcre resistancc was led bv, though not limited to, the Sanussi Islamic sect. ByJuly 19]4 the Italians controlled Tripoliwnia and had advanced to take Fazzan, but their situation was morc difficult in Cyrenaica, close to the Sanussi spidLUal and milil..'1rycentre ofAl-Khufrah. Turkey'S entry into the Crc£Il \'Var on the side of the Central Powel'S rekindled Turkish suppOrt for the Sanussi, and although this was initially dilL'ett:d against the French and the British, neutral Italyalso faced an upsurge in hoslilities in Libva. In North Africa the recentl), arrived Italian colonisers were in a weaker position than the longer established French and British, and suffered serious setbacks, By May 1915 Lhey were obliged to withdraw their ganisons to the coast. and even parts oflhis \\'ere lost to the Sanussi or other'rebels'" Apart from a largelynaval g<:lITison on the Dodecanese lslands, Italy's pre-war activities in the Balkans were diplomatic, Albania being the main focus of interest. Albania had in faet becn declared an inde pendent stale only in 1913 and was still in virtual anarchy. Marauding When ItalyenteredWorldWarI Greeks caused mayhem in southern Albania, and in October 1914, with in May 1915most ofthe army demonstrated the enthusiasm the Great \\'ar occupying international atlention. reece occupied seen inotherbelligerent much of Albania. The Italians then LOok conu"ol of Sazan Island, countries back inAugust rollowed by the neighbouring pon orVlor;, in December. 1914,Heremen oftheSanita Even before the war Italy had good relationswith the Entente Powers orMedicalCorps havepainted ofFrance, Britain and Russia, and as early asJanuary 19-15 the Austrian the name'Trento' on the side oftheirrailwaywa90n- this government recciYcd reports that Italywaspreparing toenter thewaron wasa region which Italy lheir side. The Anglo-French amck on the Dardanelles (lhe Gallipoli hopedto liberatefrom the can1paign) further encouraged the Italians; and on 26 Apl"il 1915 Italy HapsburgEmpire, signed the Treat)' of London, which promised Italy sweeping territorial gains following an Entcnte victory (promises which clashed with those made to other countries. and which included an agreement thal Albania "'oldd be largely shared belween h.alr and Greece). On 3 ~Iay 1915 Italy lerl the Triple Alliance, bUl lhere was still resistance in the Italian parliament to Italy entering the war. A change of government was needed before the interventionists got their way: but on 24 ~Iay 1915 Italy declared war on Austria-Ilungary. on 21 August on Ouoman Turkey, on 20 October on Bulg'"aria. and 011 28 4 Augusl 1916 011 Gcnnany. 23June-7July: First Battleofthe ]sonzojminor Italian CHRONOLOGY gains. 30june: LII))'o -Italian rolumnfails tobreakSil'gt!ofBll1W ~OLe: E\'ents on or mainh relc\~ant to the main Hhlid. llalian/Au\tl'o-llungarian frolll aloe shown in bold 5juZl: Lill)a- Garrison ofBmw UnlidattemptsasortiebUI type; Ihost., on Italr's secondary fronts, in ita/in; and i\ QUenuhelmed;generalItalian willulrawolfromsoulhern n:lalcd ('vcnls, in normal Iype, Tl7polilania 10COrtstcompletedb)'Augusi. 18July-3 August: Second Battle of the [sonzoj minor 1914 Italian gains. Ftbruar)': Libya - Italialls start oJfensivpagaiml mnaiTling 21 Aligusl: 11(16 dec/art's wor on Olloman Tllrkeyfor su~ San/lSsl ({{1l1!>s. portillgLibyan 'rebels'. 28 June: Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand assas 3-5October: Balkans-French and Britishdivision31and sinated in Sar.tie\'o. at The3saloniki and move up Vardar I;ver 10 help 28Jul" LO August 4: declarations ofwar b\ Austria. Serbia.6OClOber:Austro-Cennan.Bulg-.u;an invasion Hungar Russia, Ccnllany. Fr..lI1ce, Great Britain. ofSerbia; Franco-Blitish advance turned back. AUKlIst-5'('/){"lIlh,'r: Lib)", - Ila/iall fJlUl/fivi' opprotions Ortolwr:LiIJ)'n-llaliarlgarrisonsin CyrP1wim(om/)lelewilh againstSlln/l~~i. drawaltocoasi. Augusl-OCLOI>eJ-: Balkan..,: - Greek." ocellp' sOllthern October-December: Balkam - Serbian ann\' I'etreats AJbania. through Serbian-occupiecl nOrthern and central 26 August: Libya - Ilalilln coilimn de/paled by Sanuul at Albania. Bi,.flt-Falia. 18 October-4 November: Third Baltle of the Isonzo; Ortober: Balkans - Italy (Jrrll/Jif'~Albal/iall ultl11d ojSaum minor Italian g-dins. 0P/Jos;/p \701';>. then \'loriilself(Decl'1lllm"j. 20Oclober: lIalJ'dlxloreswaron Bulgan(l. 28S(JIJI'1nbt'r: Lill)a- antl-Ilalian risingill Fm.:um 11'Sldling Novt'mbel 1915-~larch 1916: Sallussi campaign in an ItaliOll witJulmwal to 7hpohltl1lia by Feb1'l.wry against Ihe Brilish and Egyptians in Ef,7\'pl. /9/5. 10 Novembel·-2 December: Fourth Battle of the Ii-23 Novembel': East Arrica - ~h~or clash between [sonzoj minor Italian gains. supponcl"'S or ~luhamll1adAbd Allah Ila5&"1n and [)erembP.'r: lJa/kam - 1311'tisll, Frencll and Iialion ships the BI;tish in Briti...h Somaliland. Tpmion bPlwpt>11 evaclwt(' Sn-birm Armylrom Dunes 10 Crl'f'k islomi of 'Dervishes' ami Ila!ians in Italian Somalilmlll eJralates CO/fll. Iialian troopJlandill \'Ioriand~/arl/)lL{hi1/gbark illio majordlL..IlfJ in 1915. Grf't'H oUIl/)a/ionfOTas in 'iOuthl'rn Albania. December 191..J-Fcbruan 1915: Balkan') - Central Albania falls to ncutr<t1ist 1~lal11ic forces. 1916 01 janllar)'-F'tbruay)': Lill)a - Comlal proj)!Rs Tripolitania 1915 fllld jabal Nail/soh ra/(l' 10 Italians: Sanussi ronlrol 9-11 March: Libya - ItaliallJ dis/mw Sonu.J5i JOIre in r"~tlirlf'(/Ioi'm/ofWadi7.LlIllUIlfI:ItaliflllsdtiM/Stmussi southm, Tripolitania. column, IhbnIOI)'. April: Partial Italian mobilisation. J1-15 March: fifth Battleof the Isonzo; minor Italian 2·/April: LIIl)·a - Largl' Italian rolllmll nlUlles!'fIsl to crush gains. Sruzus.'ii uprising in .)lIrl rrgion, drjf'alnl 0' SfJllIUJi at May: E(I.~/ Af7i.ca - At/irma' fOl'med bf'iween Muhammad Abll Zillaf01/ 28-29A/n;l. Abd Allah l-Ia.Jsfl1l (the 'Mad Mul/ahJ aud Empnvr 26April: halysignsTreatyofLondon. LijjasIlOft..llliopiainsupportof0110'11an Turks. agmnsl 4 May: Italy abrogates Triple Alliance wilh Austria BllIish, Ila/iruHandl?1>nrh. Ilatiam sl'11d rrmfolrt>mellts Hungaryand Germany. 10Maswwa ill E,itrea; I.ijjaslfdeposed27Sej)tember; bllt 6 May-23jt/IIP: Libya - Iialia/J gam''iOIiS a/ Haull \Valid ell/ilwarrontilll/l'sin 1:.'Ihioj)ia. andTarllllnahill J1;politalliabpfirgni:rdidallnllj)15fail. 14 May-I6June: Austrian offensive on Trentino front 22May: Official Italian mobilisation. takes Arsiero, Asiago, and retakes northern end of 23 May: halydeclareswaronAustria-HIUlgary. Lake Garda. 23-27 May: IFirst Offensive Bound' - Italians seize Mar Lill)'a-Italianam/)hiblOu...IW/(!il1galHasal-Mura)'Sah Stelvio,TonaJe, Cuidriari, Ciau and Plocken Passes in Cyrnwim Yf'Cll/JlUrf>S al-l3arrli, lifter wltirh B,ilish in the high Alps, plus seve.-dI salients beyond the Italian coillmn deslyo)'s Smlllssi Cllmp near Dama!l. 18 frontier. Mar Lib)a-Ilaliansrt>lokeZmL'a/'01I In 7hpobtama. 27 June: Balkans - .\lolllcnegro occupies Shkodt'r in \Ia\': Balkans - Creek Anny hands a strategic northern Albania. Serbia occupies celllral Albania, frontier fortress to the Bulgal;ans. Greece alreadyoccupiessouth.2 15-16June:Jralians take Monle Nero in night attack. 2ForatullefdescnptlonofallopeI"alJOnson1!'IeBalkanfronlanddetaIlsollhe amuesInvolved.seeMAA356.AnnIesIf!theBalkans 1914-18 5 Ktagenfurt • Ljubljana- Rijeka ........ Pre-war frontiers .........~- Front-linesinthe Trentino,with dates • TakenbyItalians In1st to11th ------The Piave hne, October1918 battles of the Isonzo ......... Armistice line, 4 November1918 •__·····-Other Italicn advances in1915 x Strategic passes 17June-lJuly: Italiancounter-attackonTrentino front 17-20Sf'IJlnnbe,.: Ba/hans - Bulgarian C01Ultpr-ojfl'1lsivI'on retakesArsiero and Asiago. J\/f/cedon;allfmnt dPjeatf'{J. 25july Libya - Start ojI1l'gotialions b"rW('('/l !ltd)', Britain 3 Oclobl',.-20 November: Bolhalls - 1::lIlf'ntfojjensilJf' /),.rall" alldtheSal1/l.ssi. tlu' Bulgari(l/l hill' and falles i\!omufh: Iialians ;11 Allgust: Balkans - Bulgarians enter non.!\{'r!1 Greece, Albania ad1J(ll1re Nlstward} during NOTIember; huk III) advance tOwards FIOI-ina and occupy K..'.I\'aIl3. Willi FW/lch af weslem md oji\!arer!onianjrol11 SOflfh 6--17 August: Sixth Battle of the Isollzo; substantial Wi'st of Loki' Prespa 10 foml a r011til1liOUS jront from Italian gains includingGorizia. Adrialnr10Aegeall Sf'as. August: Balkom - Italian 35th DivislOrJ arrnJPS m JO-I2 OClober: Eighth Baltle of the lsonzoj minor 77U'SSalonikitojoinE1ltl'1lll'forces0111MMoue/onionfront. Ilalian gairui, 24August:LilJ)'l1-Itabmu ",,'ak~Sunnanandal-Aja)lat011 1-14 NO\'cmber: Ninth Ballle of Lhe lsonzoj minor coostofwestern Tripolitania. 1taliangains. 28A.ugust: Balkans - Ententeforces halt Bulgarian thnut 16 :'\'o\'cmber: Balkans - Official eSlablishmel1l of Ult'stofThessalonikl. neutr<tl/one auoss nonhern Greece. September. Balkans - 1',:ntl'1ltp cOllnter-atlack pstablishes a front along River Stry-moll, Lake /Jojrtln oml S"'VltHl 1917 frontiertowardsFlonna. Janlllll)'-FpbrllwJ.' Libya-Italirulft!iJj)el'Sf'Saflussi!O,.ceson 29AuguSl: Italy declareswaron Germany. roast we~l of Tripoli, moki' amphibious landing at St>ptnllber-Novembt>r.' Bfll.k{/,,~ - Italians in we~tprn Albanlo Zuwamh 10complete reronqw'sfo!wi'\·tfrn Tripolitania. IJllsh CTl!fks out of so/(tlw,..,1 A/bania aud bdtilld (/ Februmy: Hajt AJriw - 'Df'1lJish' army a/lacks pro-Italian 'n('utmlzone: ofjiriat/)l(,slablished /6Novembl'r:e",lobliJIt SlIlfan Ulhmall ofObbia in Ifolian SomalilmuJ, bUI is an IIQin Gjirokostel: dl'fra(edon 27FebrufH)" 10-18 September: Balkans - Enleute forces aUark on 17April: Libya- 'Modus VivendiofAkrama'agreedbe/wren Maced011lan front, with dhwrsiol1ll1)' aftarks bJ Itahan Ita!itws, British andSmwss;. 'Rebels'il'l 7;ipoliltmia no 351h /Jiv at Lakl' Dojnm whil" Frnlrh, Snvirm and IOllgt'T rf'rognise Sal/lIssi IPadersliip and are not part) to Russian divisions b,."ak Blligarimi right jlmlk to tak thi.5 tmf('. H017no. 22-23 Mo).' Balkans - £ntf'nte offnl!Jlv(, across Croa ,ivn; 14-17 Seplember: Seventh Baltleofthe Isonzoj minor along short'S ofLake P,.,.sjw, III .\t')I1IOI1 valle)' and at Italian gains. !....l,k"J)ojmn. 6 12May-5June:Tf'nlh Battleofthe150nzo;Italiang-dins. JlIlIe: BalJwns - Italians /Jroclalmf"lImdf'IJI!tl(lenrt'for til' /Jart ofAllxmwthat the') hoM. 9June: Italian offensh'e against Monte Ortigara on the Trentino front. 10-12 June: Balkans - Emente gives pro-German King Conslalltine of Greece ,Ill ultimatum: king abdicates; nt'w Greek government declares sllppon lor [ntenle on 2iJunc. ""\ EarlJJIlI),: EastAfrim- Pro-Ilalltw ann)' o/Sliltan ('I/tman ofObbia attarks nf'rvisJU!s'. 3 .Julv: Balkans - Greece enters war on side of the ./ FAZZAN .,.,. • :0":" Entente. Heldby ~ "', ;.•.. 17 August-12 September: Eleventh Battle of the ItoliansIn1916 2 ,/L~rA 150nzo;Austrians appeal to Germany for help. Italian ~""" 2i August-25 October: Balkan~ - hench ofTen~ive \ 1c9a1m5-p19a1Ig8ns V...'...4..i'rRiC.A',···::;..Nt;:~EG--:__-S..UO_A..N_.•' around Pogradcc, south-west of LaJ...e Ohrid in ea.'itern Albania. LIBYA DURING THE GREAT WAR -I-II September: UIJ)'a - Ifaii(l!lJ rrlake JPlwra/ OtHf'\ in Tril)o/it(wia. 24-25 October: Austro-German offensive at the Battle 19t8 of Caporello - Twelfth Battle of the Isollzo 4--5 May: Night raid by ItalianArdiliand Navydestroys achieves breakthrough; Italian Army virtually electricalsub-stations behindAustrian lines. coUapsesandbeginsgeneralretreat from the Isoozo JlUle: Austrian offensives defeated at Asiago, 15--16 and Carnia fronts. June, and along River Piavc, 15-24JWle. 31 October: Italiansattemptto form anewfronton the Juh: Gen. Diaz ~end~ Italian II COI-PS to serve on the RiverTagliamento bUI fail; withdrawal continues. Western Front in France. 5 November: Italians make a stand on the River 25Jui): Lib.w1- .\lajorItalian bombardmrntofMlSratah. Livenza while main defences are completed on the 27AUgl1St-25 October: Balkans- OfTensi\'c by Elllentc River Piave. forces in Albania. staned by French di\·isions in 7-10 November: Italians withdraw to Piave Line. Gen. Kon;:c region. DiazreplacesGen. CadornaasChiefoftheGeneral I"Sr'lJlember: 13a/kall~ - 1\lajoro//nulv€ bJ'ElIlmll'forason Staffon 9 November. Maredon;tHlfirmt: Frenrh, Serhian and fla/itm divisions 12 November: Austrian attack via BeUwlo to il11ercept arhlrvebreakthroughbetweenAlbanianfrrmtieramiI?iver the Italian retreat fails. \'ardar: 2) ,\eptember: Libya - Ila/ian coillmn from ZIl1l'arah overnwsrebeLbluellt QlZjrTillt!. ALBANIAN-MACEDONIAN FRONT 25-30 Seplrmhr,.: Bnlham - Fn!'1lcli and Italian dllllSlmlJ hl'gm rapidadvancealmil{Iherour.seofRiwrCnw. 2 Ortobe,.: BalkallS - Ilalians in WfS/t>n1 Alhania advance nort/t alongroasl, supportedIl)' Iialinu NllU)'. 5 Oc/ob('/":Lib)'a- Rebl4aUack011 Iialianposilionata/.-jfllnil dejmled. 24 October: Start of Battle of Vittorio Veneto; Italian and British forces advance across the River Piave. 27 October:Austria asks Italy for armistice. 6 October: Lib)'a-ltaJillllsdefi'lll rebflsatZanz.llr: 2 lovember: Hungarian government orders I-Iwlgariall troops in Austro-Hwlgarian Army to lay down theirarms. GREECE 3 November: Austria signs armistice to take effect the __,--, Frontiers in1914 next day; Italian amphibious landing in Trieste; ••••~.Front-line inlate1917 Balkans-Ilaliansaduauetnginto nOl"lIwnIAlbanialake .·..•..·ltaliansectionsof the front Shkodirfivm J\/ollll'1legmns. '.*'' Road from VIore toThessaloniki 4 November: Austrian armistice takes effect at J500 Main clashes on AIbanian front hours. ~Italian campaigns inAlbania 7 After the war was won, haly recei\'cd less than she had been promised in the Treaty of London, and much less than 1110st 1L:1lians regarded as their country's due. The populations gaincd by the acquisition of the LitLOral, Trentino and Aho Adige were virtually the same as Italy's wartime casualties. About five and half million men had entered the services and of these two-fifths became casualt.ies, about 689,000 being killed and one million seriouslywounded. The economy had expanded, but Italy was left with a massive international debt.. All of these l~lcLOrs conu'ibllted to the rise ofFascism only a few years Imcr. THE CAMPAIGNS The Italian front Fighting 011 the Italian front was more dominaLcd by gcographical con ditions than an)' other theatre in Europe. In the mountains some defensive positions and wire entanglements were situated on Alpine peaks or followed high ridges and clirTtops LO creatc virtually unassailable fortifications. The Austro-J-1ungarians had turned the Trentino inl.O one \'ast fortress in which every major vantage point bristled with guns. Between August 1914 and May 1915 Lhey had also carved elaborate defences into the limestOne hills, plateauxand mountainsalongLhe River (sanzo, often extending the networksofnatural caveswhich arc a featurc of this landscape. Leanling from the lessons of the Western Front, the Austro-Hungariansstrengthened the natural defcnsive features wit.h belLS ofbarbed wire and mutually supporting blockhouses, all served by new military roads and railways. Meanwhile the Italian ChicI' of thc Ceneral St.aff, Cen. Luigi Cadorna, drew up his essenually oilensivc strategy. Using thc bencfitof interiorlinesofcommunic:Ilion, he ensured thatu·oopscould be mo\"ed easily betwcen the TrCI1Lino and the Isonzo. Once war was declarcd, Cadornaestablished hissupreme headquartersat Udine, less than 20km from the frontier. The front from thc Stelvio Pass near lheSwiss border to theAdriaticSeawasabotlt675km (419 rniles) long. Itwasdivided intO three scctions: the Trentino in the west, which was pierced by the River Adige; the Carnia in the centre, which was so mountainous that 1TI<:"U0r offensi\'es were unrealistic; and the Ison.w in the east, which olTered several strategic possibiliues. It was in the cast that Cadorna conccn~ tratcd Italian efforts. In May 1915 t.he Ist and 4th A.rmies under Gens. Hrusmi and Nava held the Trentino sector; Gen. Lequoi's 19 baualions of Alpini plus cavaiJ)' and artillery held the Carnia line. The 2nd Army (Gen. Fl"ugoni in Lhe north) and the 3rd Army (Gen. Zuccari, soon La be replaced b)' the Duke of Aosta, in thc south) wcre ranged along the Isonzo front.. Three other army corps were hcld in rescrvc. Despite \'arious modifi cations, this StruCture remained basicall)' intact for twO and a halfyears until the batLle of Caporetto. In sorne sectors, most notably around Caporeuo at the northern end of the 2nd Army's front, Italian dispo sitions wcre very thinly spread. On the Isonzo front the bulk of Italian strengLh was concentrated along the southern sector, where Cardona repcatcdly attempted to achieve a breakthrough. Gen. Cadorna's attacking strategy was unleashed with the 'First 8 Offcnsive Bound' of23-27 May -1915. This was a considerablc success, with the lLaliansseizing,"iLaIobjecu,"cson all fronLS includingthes,,\-era1 Alpine passes and teHiLOI)' beyond. 8tlla hesiLall1 advance on the lower Isonzo led LO the dismissal ofCen, Vercellana - the first of man)' such sackings by Cadorna, who initially hoped LO break through La Ljubljana, Vienna and BudapesL. This strategy resulted in the initial "Cl)' costlr battles of the Isonzo. Failing to achie\'e his breakthrough, Cadorna changed his objecu\'c but not hissu-ategy, nowaiming to liberateTI-ieste rather than drh'e on thc enemy capiLals, This resulted in further bloody battlesofthe Isonzo, no less than e1e\'en ofwhich were identified, e\'en tually winning territory up to and in several sectors beyond the R..iver Isonzo, including the cit)' ofGorilia, Even though Cadonla soon realised that this was going to be a war ofatu;tion, he conunued to ha\'e faith in massed arullery and massed infantryatLacks, In 1917, before the disaster at CaporcllD, the Bdush Gen, RoberLSon LOured the Italian defellces, which he described as old fashioned and lackingdepth;co-ordination between artilleryand inf~m1l1' wasinadequate,and therewas"L~ yetno usc ofthecreepingbarrage.while communications \,'ere 'elementary' in Robertson's vie\,". (..-\'nothersenior British officer. the ,'ery expel;enced Gen, Plumer, visited the front afterC'..aporeLto; he toO was c,"iticaJ ofthe Imlian use ofartillery,) AlCaporetto (ortheTwelfth Balticofthe Isonl.O) in October 1917,the Austro-Ilungarians (with modest butdecisive Ccnnan sllppon) smashed the 2nd Arm)' fronl, outOanking the 3rd Am1\' to the south and the Although the Italian front ran Carnia front to the north-east. The initial panic retreat ""(\05 halted and a from the Swissbordertothe new Italian fl-ont was established along the River Pia,'c to the Ipine Adriatrlc coast, mostofits foothills, where itjoineo the largely unchanged front which the Italians lengthwas so mountainous maintained in the Trel1tino sector. Six French and fi\'e BI-itish cli,'isions thatmajormilitaryoperations were impractical,Byfarthe were scnt to Italy from the 'vVl'stcrn Front aftcr the Italialls haltcd the mostintensivefighting was enemy advance, but oncc lher had arrivcd the front was di,idcd into concentrated along the lower smallercorpssectors as follows: that ofVII Corps from the S\,"iss frontier course ofthe RiverIsonzoand to Lake Carda: IC0'l)S between Arsiero and Asiago: VI Corps from there inrelatively lowmountains on to tJle Ri\'er BrenLa (incorporating a British and a French di\ision); f\' eitherside.Largecampsand dumps ofmenand material C0'l)S from the Brenta almost to the River Pia,·e, where a shon front was were often concentrated in held by the French 12th Arm)' (incorporaLing Italian divisions); VIII the narrowIsonzovalley, C0'1)S wilh the i\lontello to their rear and the Pia\'c ahead; the British seen herefromtheair, XIV Coq)s!1a,h Am,\' as far as Ponte de Pia,'e (incorporating Italian di\'isions); and III COI'PS (ex-3rd Army) from there to the Ach;atic coast. The IX and C:'wah"y Corps were held in reserve, The Italians were aware of tJle shoncomings which hadexposed them todefeat at CaporetLO. and the first hall' of 1918 was dedicated to changing the arlTl\"s Ouulloded tactics. Colonel Pietro Badoglio (who rose to greater prominence 9