Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series General Editors: Megan Vaughan, King’s College, Cambridge and Richard Drayton , King’s College, London This informative series covers the broad span of modern imperial history while also exploring the recent developments in former colonial states where residues of empire can still be found. The books provide in-depth examinations of empires as competing and complementary power structures encouraging the reader to reconsider their understanding of international and world history during recent centuries. Titles include: Tony Ballantyne ORIENTALISM AND RACE Aryanism in the British Empire Gregory A. Barton INFORMAL EMPIRE AND THE RISE OF ONE WORLD CULTURE James Beattie Peter F Bang and C. A. Bayly (editors) TRIBUTARY EMPIRES IN GLOBAL HISTORY EMPIRE AND ENVIRONMENTAL ANXIETY, 1800–1920 Health, Aesthetics and Conservation in South Asia and Australasia Rachel Berger AYURVEDA MADE MODERN Political Histories of Indigenous Medicine in North India, 1900–1955 Robert J. Blyth THE EMPIRE OF THE RAJ Eastern Africa and the Middle East, 1858–1947 Rachel Bright CHINESE LABOUR IN SOUTH AFRICA, 1902–10 Race, Violence, and Global Spectacle Larry Butler and Sarah Stockwell THE WIND OF CHANGE Harold Macmillan and British Decolonization Kit Candlin THE LAST CARIBBEAN FRONTIER, 1795–1815 Nandini Chatterjee THE MAKING OF INDIAN SECULARISM Empire, Law and Christianity, 1830–1960 Esme Cleall MISSIONARY DISCOURSE Negotiating Difference in the British Empire, c. 1840–1895 T. J. Cribb (editor) IMAGINED COMMONWEALTH Cambridge Essays on Commonwealth and International Literature in English Bronwen Everill ABOLITION AND EMPIRE IN SIERRA LEONE AND LIBERIA Róisín Healy and Enrico Dal Lago (editors) THE SHADOW OF COLONIALISM IN EUROPE’S MODERN PAST B. D. Hopkins THE MAKING OF MODERN AFGHANISTAN Ronald Hyam BRITAIN’S IMPERIAL CENTURY, 1815–1914: A STUDY OF EMPIRE AND EXPANSION Third Edition Iftekhar Iqbal THE BENGAL DELTA Ecology, State and Social Change, 1843–1943 Leslie James GEORGE PADMORE AND DECOLONIZATION FROM BELOW Pan-Africanism, the Cold War, and the End of Empire Robin Jeffrey POLITICS, WOMEN AND WELL-BEING How Kerala Became a ‘Model’ Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo THE ‘CIVILISING MISSION‘ OF PORTUGUESE COLONIALISM, 1870–1930 Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo and António Costa Pinto THE ENDS OF EUROPEAN COLONIAL EMPIRES Cases and Comparisons Gerold Krozewski MONEY AND THE END OF EMPIRE British International Economic Policy and the Colonies, 1947–58 Zoë Laidlaw and Alan Lester (editors) INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES AND SETTLER COLONIALISM Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World Javed Majeed AUTOBIOGRAPHY, TRAVEL AND POST-NATIONAL IDENTITY Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series Series Standing Order ISBN 978–0–333–91908–8 (Hardback) 978–0–333–91909–5 (Paperback) (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and one of the ISBNs quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England. The Imperialism of French Decolonisation French Policy and the Anglo-American Response in Tunisia and Morocco Ryo Ikeda Kansai Gaidai University, Japan © Ryo Ikeda 2015 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2015 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN: 978–1–137–36894–2 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ikeda, Ryo, 1970 – The imperialism of French decolonization : French policy and the Anglo-American response in Tunisia and Morocco / Ryo Ikeda. pages cm.—(Cambridge imperial and post-colonial studies series) ISBN 978–1–137–36894–2 (hardback) 1. Africa, North – Relations – France. 2. France – Relations – Africa, North. 3. Decolonization – Africa, North. I. Title. DT197.5.F8I44 2015 3259.3440961—dc23 2014049708 Contents Acknowledgements v i List of Abbreviations viii Introduction 1 1 Tunisia and Morocco under French Protectorates 13 2 The Commencement of Negotiations 24 3 The UN Debates in 1951 41 4 The UN Debates in 1952 55 5 The Impasse 86 6 Tunisia’s Internal Autonomy 1 12 7 The Restoration of Mohammed V 133 8 Towards the Recognition of Independence 164 9 The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations 193 Conclusion 209 Appendix 1: The Key Texts 220 Appendix 2: List of Key Persons 231 Notes 235 Bibliography 287 Index 297 v Acknowledgements I would like to thank, first of all, John Kent, my doctoral supervisor, of the London School of Economics. His teaching and writing were essential in interesting me in decolonisation, especially in Africa, and its interactions with the Cold War. He also gave me comments on a draft of this work and many other pieces. Martin Thomas and Piers Ludlow also deserve many thanks for providing me with comments and suggestions on my PhD thesis. I owe a special debt to the Josui-kai Overseas Exchange Program which enabled me to study in London. Thanks also go to the Japan Student Services Organization and the LSE International Relations Department for providing me with a scholarship to pursue research in London. The Central Research Fund of the University of London and the Royal Historical Society awards funded my archival research in France and the United States, respectively. The COE program of Hitotsubashi University and the Grant-in-Aid Fund by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science supported me for conducting archival research after the comple- tion of my PhD programme. As a work of historical research, this project would not have been possible without the consultation of governmental archives at a number of libraries and archives. I am deeply indebted to generous permission for publication by Le Ministère des Affaires Etrangères (France), The National Archives (UK), The National Archives and Records Administration (US), The Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library in Kansas, Le Centre d’Accueil et de Recherche des Archives Nationales at Paris and Les Archives Nationales d’Outre-Mer at Aix-en-Provence. A special debt is owed to Michel Mendès-France, who granted me permission to use the material that belonged to L’Instituit Pierre Mendès-France. I owe many thanks to Richard Drayton and three anonymous reviewers for their comments and encouragement that greatly helped elaborate my argument, and Jenny McCall, my editor, and all the other staff at Palgrave Macmillan for their support and tolerance. The earlier version of this book, entitled Shokuminchi Dokuritsu no Kigen [The Origins of National Independence] was published in Japanese by Hosei University Press, which I would like to thank for its permission to publish the work in English. I am also grateful to Koji Nakakita, whose vi Acknowledgements vii support and advice during the publication of the Japanese version sharpened my academic focus. I have benefitted from discussions with a number of scholars and colleagues, including Shigeru Akita, Matthew Connelly, Osamu Ishii, Yoichi Kibata, Philip Murphy, Takahiko Tanaka, Susumu Yamauchi, Se Hyun Ahn, Toshihiko Aono, Madoka Futamura, Tomoki Kuniyoshi, Garret Martin, Rashmi Singh, and Monika Thakur. Tony Chafer, Dane Kennedy and Takeshi Yamamoto gave me thoughtful and helpful suggestions’ on the draft of the book. My particular thanks go to Yee-Kuang Heng, whose advice and warm encouragement were essential in realising this project. Heartfelt advice from Takeshi Yuzawa was crucial to this project too. Hilary Parker deserves many thanks for her meticulous proofreading of my PhD thesis and other pieces. Finally, I must thank my family. My parents’ encouragement and support, moral and material, were essential. My wife Izumi’s help was enormous throughout every stage of this project. She has provided me with such a tremendous support and smile in difficult times. In partic- ular, she has given me numerous lectures on Constitutional Law and International Law, without which this research would have been impos- sible, and has acted as sounding board for my ideas. I alone, of course, am responsible for the ideas in the book and any errors and omissions. This book is dedicated to Izumi. List of Abbreviations CARAN Centre d’Accueil et de Recherche des Archives Nationales CDF Central Decimal File CSTT Commandement Supérieur des Troupes de Tunisie DDEL Dwight D. Eisenhower Library DST Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire EDC European Defence Community FO Foreign Office (UK) FRUS Foreign Relations of United States GA UN General Assembly LA Latin America MAE Ministère des Affaires Étrangères (France, Quai d’Orsay) MDAP Mutual Defense Assistance Program MRP Mouvement Républicain Populaire NARA National Archives and Records Administration (US) NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NSC National Security Council (US) PDI Parti Démocratique de l’Indépendance PTT Poste Télégraphe et Télécommunication SC UN Security Council SFIO Section Française de l’Internationale Ouvrière TNA The National Archives (UK) UDSR Union Démocratique et Socialiste de la Résistance UGSCM Union Générale des Syndicats Confédérés du Maroc UGTT Union Générale des Travailleurs Tunisiens UN United Nations YUN Yearbook of the United Nations viii Introduction Prior to the outbreak of World War II a limited number of sovereign and independent states existed in Asia and Africa; most of the territories in those regions were ruled by European colonial powers. By contrast, the contemporary world is dominated by independent countries as a result of decolonisation. Two features about the way decolonisation proceeded were predominant: the first was its rapidity, the second its relative smoothness in the sense that it did not result in major conflicts between the United States and Europe, albeit, of course, with impor- tant exceptions. As for the first, shortly after the end of the war, it was expected by the British government that only a few territories would be independent within a generation. 1 With regard to French overseas territories, political autonomy, let alone independence, was ruled out. Yet by the 1960s, almost all British and French former dependencies were independent, and by the 1970s, Portugal, a colonial power that had resisted the decolonisation trend until the last, agreed to dissolve its colonial empire. What was the starting point of this rapid process and how can this rapidity be explained? Second, one can point out that the colonial powers agreed to inter- national pressure on decolonisation with surprising calmness in the sense that many cases did not produce visible friction between them and the United States. Major exceptions were, above all, the Suez Crisis and the Indochinese and Algerian wars, but most colonial territories in sub-Saharan Africa became independent without accompanying mili- tary conflicts and therefore without international tension. In the Cold War era, European colonial powers in general were faced with a rising tide of anti-colonial nationalism, and the United States was its most vocal champion. This posed a dilemma for the colonial powers, as they were pressured into pursuing decolonisation by the United States while 1