What’s it like on the inside? The impact of self-concept on the educational engagement and delinquency of young offenders in a custodial setting Rana Abou-Sinna A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Psychology (Clinical and Forensic Psychology) Centre for Forensic Behavioural Science Faculty of Health, Arts and Design Swinburne University of Technology 2016 ii ABSTRACT With growing evidence that educational engagement and academic success are important in reducing the likelihood of reoffending by young people (Blomberg et al., 2010; Brookmeyer, Fanti & Henrich, 2006; Chapman et al., 2011; Li et al., 2011), youth detention centres are increasingly searching for ways of engaging young offenders in education and providing positive learning experiences. Previous research has elucidated the important role self-concept can play in the educational engagement of young people. However, to date, little research has specifically examined the relationship between self-concept and educational engagement in young incarcerated offenders. This study aimed to address this gap using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Self-concept was assessed in 70 young adolescent males aged between 14 to 19 years (M = 16.53, SD = 1.00) who were incarcerated in a youth custodial facility. In addition to a measure specifically examining self-concept, participants also completed measures assessing related constructs including personality, self-esteem, self-efficacy and early maladaptive schema. The narratives of 15 young offenders were also examined using narrative inquiry. The results of the quantitative and qualitative analyses indicated that young offenders’ self-concepts along with their temperament and character predicted both educational engagement and previous delinquency, suggesting that the self-concept may be a key variable linked to the overall adjustment of a young person and not just their educational outcomes. The self-concept may therefore be particularly relevant to rehabilitative efforts in young offenders. The results also provide insight into how young offenders’ life experiences, particularly their childhood experiences, contribute to the development of negative self-beliefs, which impact on their engagement in education. iii DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this thesis to my mother. You will always be my inspiration for everything that I do. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The journey through the doctorate has been long and challenging but also very rewarding and I have a number of people to thank. First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to God for giving me the strength, wisdom and patience I needed to get through this. I am forever grateful for Your blessings. I would also like to thank my loving mother, to whom I have dedicated this thesis. You are an inspirational woman. Your strength and courage in life has set one of the greatest examples for me and has continued to inspire me throughout my life. You are an amazing and strong woman and will always be my role model. Your unconditional love and faith in me has given me the strength to see this through. I cannot thank you enough for all that you have done for me. I would also like to express my sincerest thanks to Professor Michael Daffern, my primary supervisor. It has been an absolute pleasure working under your supervision. I hope you know that you have really made a difference here and that the time and effort you have put into this project has meant a lot to me. I have learnt so much from you both as a provisional psychologist and student researcher. Thank you for your patience and kindness and for your willingness to share your wisdom, knowledge and expertise with me. I could not have done this without you. I would also like to acknowledge Professor Stuart Thomas. Thank you for your continued support and constant encouragement over the past 6 years. I cannot even begin to express how appreciative I am of that and of all of your input and guidance with this project. I would also like to acknowledge Professor Pamela Snow whose input has been integral to the formulation of this project. Your effort, expertise and guidance have been invaluable. I also need to thank Professor James Ogloff for his support and faith in my potential. I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to my friends and family (especially to Shadi, Kimo and Tamer) for their ongoing emotional support. I would also like to acknowledge my fellow colleagues, whom I have had the privilege to study alongside, for their part in my journey. I am also very grateful to Mr Brendan Murray, the principal of Parkville College, for the opportunity to conduct my research at his school. I would like to extend this gratitude to all of the staff at Parkville College who supported me during my data collection. Finally, I would like to express a very special thanks to the young people who participated in this project. This project would not have been possible without you. Thank you for your contributions. v DECLARATION This thesis titled “What’s it like on the inside? The impact of self-concept on the educational engagement and delinquency of young incarcerated offenders”, by Rana Abou-Sinna contains no material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other institution, except where due reference is made in the text of the examinable outcome. I also affirm that to the best of my knowledge the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis. Rana Abou-Sinna Date vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ii Dedication ........................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv Declaration ......................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... x List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi Thesis Outline .................................................................................................................... xii Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................... 2 1.0 Introduction........................................................................................................ 2 1.1. Youth Offending in Australia ........................................................................... 3 1.2. International Research on Youth Offending .................................................... 12 1.2.1 New Zealand (NZ) .................................................................... 12 1.2.2 United Kingdom (UK) .............................................................. 14 1.2.3. United States of America (USA) .............................................. 15 1.3. A Comparison of Trends in Offending Across USA, UK, Australia and NZ………… ...................................................................................................................... 17 1.4. Risk and Protective Factors .............................................................................. 18 1.4.1. Community Domain Factors....................................................... 20 1.4.2. Family Domain Factors .............................................................. 22 1.4.3. Peer/ Individual Domain Factors ................................................ 24 1.4.4. School Domain Factors… .......................................................... 26 1.5. The Relationship between Education and Delinquency ................................... 29 1.5.1. Academic Achievement, School Dropout and Educational Engagement ......................................................................................... 29 1.5.2. The Link between Educational Engagement and Youth Offending .............................................................................................................. 34 1.6. Factors Contributing to School Disengagement ................................................ 40 1.7. Youth Justice Programs and Interventions… .................................................... 42 1.8. Summary ............................................................................................................ 49 1.9. The Relationship between Self-Concept and Educational Engagement and Delinquency ...................................................................................................... 49 1.9.1. Defining the Self-Concept ......................................................... 50 vii 1.9.2. The Relationship between Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy and Self- Concept................................................................................................. 54 1.9.3. The Relationship between Personality, Schema, Narrative Identity and Self-Concept................................................................................... 56 1.9.3.1. Personality .............................................................. 57 1.9.3.2. Early Maladaptive Schema ..................................... 63 1.9.3.3. Narrative Identity .................................................... 68 1.9.3.4. Conclusion ............................................................... 73 1.9.4. Research Linking Self-Concept and Educational Engagement and Delinquency .......................................................................................... 74 1.9.4.1. The Relationship between Self-Concept and Educational Engagement ......................................................................... 75 1.9.4.2. The Relationship between Self-Concept and Youth Offending.............................................................................. 81 1.10. Critical Summary ........................................................................................ 86 1.11. The Present Study: Aims, Research Questions and Hypotheses ................. 88 1.11.1.Aims… ........................................................................................ 88 1.11.2. Research Questions and Hypotheses… ..................................... 88 Chapter Two: Methodology ............................................................................................. 89 2.1. Research Design and Paradigm ...................................................................... 89 2.2. Setting ............................................................................................................. 91 2.3. Quantitative Research Methodology .............................................................. 94 2.3.1. Participants ................................................................................... 94 2.3.1.1. Exclusion Criteria.............................................................. 94 2.3.2. Procedure ...................................................................................... 95 2.3.2.1. Ethical Considerations ...................................................... 98 2.3.2.1.1. Informed Consent................................................... 100 2.3.3. Quantitative Measures .................................................................. 101 2.3.4. Quantitative Data Analysis .......................................................... 109 2.3.4.1. Data Screening .................................................................... 109 2.3.4.2. Data Analytic Plan… ........................................................... 111 2.4. Qualitative Research Methodology ................................................................ 112 2.4.1. Participants .................................................................................. 112 2.4.1.1. Theoretical Saturation… .................................................. 113 2.4.2. Qualitative Research Interviews .................................................. 114 viii 2.4.3. Qualitative Data Analysis ............................................................ 116 2.4.3.1. Establishing Research Credibility ................................... 119 Chapter Three. Quantitative Research Findings............................................................ 124 3.1. Descriptive Findings ........................................................................................... 124 3.2. Relationship between Self-Concept, Educational Engagement and Self-Reported Delinquency ........................................................................................................ 127 3.2.1. Educational Engagement, Self-Concept Measures and Self-Reported Delinquency .......................................................................................... 129 3.2.2. Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy, Personality, Early Maladaptive Schema and Self-Reported Delinquency ....................... 129 3.3. Predicting Educational Engagement and Delinquency ....................................... 130 Chapter Four. Qualitative Research Findings ................................................................ 136 4.1. Unstable Childhoods........................................................................................... 136 4.1.1. Domestic Violence ..................................................................... 137 4.1.1.1. Fear and Helplessness ..................................................... 138 4.1.2. Childhood Maltreatment ............................................................. 139 4.1.3. Impact of Domestic Violence and Childhood Treatment ........... 141 4.1.4. Family Separation ....................................................................... 143 4.1.5. Disadvantage .............................................................................. 146 4.2. Negative School Experiences ............................................................................ 148 4.2.1. Disinterest in School ................................................................... 148 4.2.2. Behavioural Problems................................................................. 149 4.2.2.1. Difficulty Managing Anger .......................................... 150 4.2.3. Conflict with Teachers............................................................... 151 4.2.4. Poor School Attendance ............................................................. 152 4.2.4.1. Engagement with Delinquent Peers ............................. 153 4.2.4.2. Social Isolation and Need for Connectedness .............. 154 4.3. Delinquency ....................................................................................................... 157 4.3.1. Criminal Families ....................................................................... 158 4.3.2. Substance Use ............................................................................. 159 4.3.3. Perceived Reward for Crime for Crime ...................................... 161 4.3.4. Emotional Regulation and Crime ............................................... 163 4.3.5. Freedom and Independence ........................................................ 164 4.3.6. Involvement with Peers and Crime ............................................. 165 4.3.7. Neighbourhood and Crime.......................................................... 167 4.3.8. Reputation and Respect .............................................................. 168 ix 4.4. Incarceration ..................................................................................................... 169 4.4.1. Reflection..................................................................................... 169 4.5. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem .......................................................................... 172 4.6. Hope for Change ............................................................................................... 173 4.7. Analytic Summary ............................................................................................ 175 Chapter Five. Discussion ................................................................................................... 176 5.1. Discussion of Quantitative Findings................................................................. 177 5.1.1. The Interrelationship between Self-Concept and Self-Concept Related Constructs ................................................................................ 178 5.1.2. Relationship between Self-Concept, Educational Engagement, Delinquency .......................................................................................... 181 5.1.3. The Impact of the Self-Concept on Educational Engagement and Self- Reported Delinquency .......................................................................... 188 5.2. Discussion of Qualitative Findings ................................................................... 190 5.2.1. Factors Contributing to the Educational Engagement of Young Offenders ................................................................................................ 191 5.2.2. Self-Concept, Hope and Intervention ............................................ 195 5.3. Integration of the Findings ............................................................................... 198 5.4. Implications ...................................................................................................... 203 5.5. Limitations of the Study ................................................................................... 213 5.6. Directions for Future Research ......................................................................... 216 5.7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 217 References........................................................................................................................... 219 Appendices ......................................................................................................................... 274 Appendix 1. Participant Explanatory Statements (Plain Language Statement) ..... 274 Appendix 2: Participant Consent Form .................................................................. 278 Appendix 3: Ethics Approval Letters ..................................................................... 279 Appendix 4: Interview Schedule ............................................................................ 287 Appendix 5: Participant Questionnaire Aide .......................................................... 289 Appendix 6: Bonferroni Corrected Correlation Matrix .......................................... 291 ii LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1. Risk and Protective Factors for Delinquency ................................................ 28 Table 2.3. Breakdown of Parkville Youth Justice Precinct by Facility and Unit ........... 93 Table 3.1. Means, Standard Deviations, Ranges and Internal Consistency Reliabilities for all Study Measures......................................................................................... 126 Table 3.2. Correlations between Self-Concept, Educational Engagement and Self-Reported Delinquency ................................................................................................... 128 Table 3.3.1. Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Educational Engagement ................................................................................................... 131 Table 3.3.2. Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Behavioural Engagement .................................................................................................... 132 Table 3.3.3. Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Emotional Engagement .................................................................................................... 133 Table 3.3.4. Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Cognitive Engagement .................................................................................................... 134 Table 3.3.5. Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Self-Reported Delinquency .................................................................................................... 135