The Horn of Africa       The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa Annette Seegers       The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC since  Scott Thomas       A History of East Africa, – R. W. Beachey       The Nigerian Military and the State Jimi Peters       Adjusting Society: The World Bank, the IMF and Ghana Lynne Brydon and Karen Legge       The Horn of Africa: Politics and International Relations Peter Woodward       State of Emergency: Nyasaland  Colin Baker      Series      The Horn of Africa: State, politics and international relations   Tauris Academic Studies I.B.Tauris Publishers LONDON · NEW YORK Published in  by I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd,  Salem Road, London    Fifth Avenue, New York   www.ibtauris.com In the United States of America and in Canada distributed by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of St Martin’s Press,  Fifth Avenue, New York   Copyright © Peter Woodward, ,  All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. A full  record for this book is available from the British Library A full  record for this book is available from the Library of Congress      (paperback)      (hardback) Library of Congress catalog card number ‒ Set in Monotype Ehrhardt by Ewan Smith, London Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin Contents Acknowledgements vii Abbreviations viii Map: Horn of Africa   Introduction    State and Politics   The Historic Horn   Sudan   Somalia   Ethiopia   Eritrea and Djibouti    International Relations   Neighbours and Conflict   Superpowers   Regional Politics   Development, Relief and Mediation  Conclusion  Notes and Bibliography  Index  Acknowledgements My thanks to Lester Crook of I.B.Tauris for encouraging the writing of this introduction to the politics and international relations of the Horn of Africa: he showed great patience as it dragged on beyond its initial timetable. Thanks as well to the many friends and colleagues with whom I have been involved in seminars, conferences and dis- cussions about the Horn. I deeply regret the premature death in  of two old friends who taught me much about the region, Ahmed Karadawi and Khalid el-Kid. Special thanks are due to the Rockefeller Foundation for the invitation to spend a most memorable and valuable period at the Bellagio Center, Italy. Ann Cade and Marjorie McNamara helped with my incompetence on the word processor; and my wife Carol showed her customary forbearance. Peter Woodward Reading vii Abbreviations CARE CARE International CART Combined Agency Relief Team COPWE Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia DFSS Democratic Front for the Salvation of Somalia DUP Democratic Unionist Party ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ELF Eritrean Liberation Front ELF-PLF Eritrean Liberation Front-People’s Liberation Forces EPLF Eritrean People’s Liberation Front EPRDF Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front EPRP Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party ERA Eritrean Relief Association FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FLN Front de Libération National FRUD Front pour la Restauration de l’Unité et la Démocratie GONGO government-organized non-governmental organization GUNT Government of National Unity ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IGADD Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development IMF International Monetary Fund MEISON All Ethiopia Socialist Movement NDA National Democratic Alliance NFD Northern Frontier District NGO non-governmental organization NIF National Islamic Front NUP National Union Party OAU Organization of African Unity OLF Oromo Liberation Front OLS Operation Lifeline Sudan ONLF Ogaden National Liberation Front OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries PA Peasant Association viii  ix PDF People’s Defence Force PDO People’s Democratic Organization PDP People’s Democratic Party PDRY People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen PFDJ People’s Front for Democracy and Justice PLO Palestine Liberation Organization PMAC Provisional Military Administrative Council (Dergue) POMOA Provisional Office of Mass Organization RCC Revolutionary Command Council REST Relief Society of Tigre RRC Relief and Rehabilitation Commission SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks SACDNU Sudan African Closed District National Union SANU Sudan African National Union SCF Save the Children Fund SDA Somali Democratic Alliance SDM Somali Democratic Movement SNM Somali National Movement SPLA/SPLM Sudan People’s Liberation Army/Movement SPM Somali Patriotic Movement SRC Supreme Revolutionary Council SRRA Sudan Relief and Rehabilitation Association SRSP Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party SSDF Somali Salvation Democratic Front SSU Sudan Socialist Union SYL Somali Youth League TGE Transitional Government of Ethiopia TMC Transitional Military Council TPLF Tigrean People’s Liberation Front UN United Nations UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Unicef United Nations (International) Children’s (Emergency) Fund UNITAF United Nations Task Force UNOSOM United Nations Operation in Somalia UNSERO United Nations Sudan Emergency Relief Office USC United Somali Congress USF United Somali Front WFP World Food Programme WPE Workers’ Party of Ethiopia WSLF Western Somali Liberation Front