THE HISTORY OF MONGOLIA VOLUME I THE HISTORY OF MONGOLIA VOLUME I The Pre-Chinggisid Era Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Empire Edited by DAVID SNEATH UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE and CHRISTOPHER KAPLONSKI UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE THE HISTORY OF MONGOLIA Edited by David Sneath and Christopher Kaplonski First published 20 I 0 by GLOBAL ORIENTAL LTD POBox219 Folkestone Ken t CT20 2 WP UK www.globalorienta1.co.uk Edited matter and selection © Global Oriental Ltd 20 I 0 Individual owners retain copyright of their own material ISBN 978-1-905246-36-6 [3-volume set] All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A elP catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library Set in Times 10 on 12pt by RefineCatch Limited. Bungay. Suffolk Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenharn, Wiltshire CONTENTS VOLUME I Preface ix Acknowledgements xi List of Maps xiii PART 1: THE PRE-CHINGGISID ERA 1 Introduction David Sneath 3 1. Di Cosmo, N. (1994) ‘Ancient Inner Asian Nomads’ 10 2. Sima Qian (1993) ‘The Account of the Xiongnu’ 43 3. Golden, P.B. (2006) ‘The Türk Imperial Tradition in the Pre-Chinggisid Era’ 68 4. Lattimore, O. (1963) ‘The Geography of Chingis Khan’ 96 PART 2: CHINGGIS KHAN AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE 107 Introduction David Sneath 109 5. Excerpts from The Secret History of the Mongols 119 6. De Rachewiltz, I. (1973) ‘Some Remarks on the Ideological Foundations of Chingis Khan’s Empire’ 165 7. Schurmann, H.F. (1956) ‘Mongol Tributary Practices of the Thirteenth Century’ 174 8. De Rachewiltz, I. (1993) ‘Some Reflections on Cˇinggis Qan’s Jˇasaγ’ 212 vi CONTENTS 9. Jackson, P. (1999) ‘From Ulus to Khanate: The Making of the Mongol States, c. 1220–c. 1290’ 229 10. John of Plano Carpini (1980) Excerpts from The Mongol Mission (Dawson ed.) 249 11. William of Rubruck (1980) Excerpts from The Mission to Asia (Dawson ed.) 256 12. Allsen, T. (1986) ‘Guard and Government in the Reign of the Grand Qan Möngke’, 1251–59 297 13. Jackson, P. (1978) ‘The Dissolution of the Mongol Empire’ 315 14. Dardess, J. W. (1972–3) ‘From Mongol Empire to Yüan Dynasty: Changing Forms of Imperial Rule in Mongolia and Central Asia’ 358 VOLUME II PART 3: YUAN AND LATE MEDIEVAL PERIOD 391 Introduction David Sneath 393 15. Marco Polo (1958) ‘Kubilai Khan’ Excerpt from The Travels of Marco Polo 401 16. Rossabi, M. (1988) ‘Mismanagement and the Chinese Response’ Excerpt from Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times 431 17. Farquhar, D. M. (1981) ‘Structure and Function in Yüan Imperial Government’ 454 18. Endicott-West, E. (1986) ‘Imperial Governance in Yüan times’ 478 19. Jamsran, L. (2004) ‘The Crisis of the Forty and the Four’ 497 20. Gongor (1970) ‘The Twelve Tümen of the Aglag Khüree Khalkha Mongols’ 508 21. Natsagdorj, Sh. and A. Ochir (2004) ‘Six Tümen’ 521 22. Elverskog, J. (2003). Excerpt from The Jewel Translucent Su¯tra: Altan Khan and the Mongols in the Sixteenth Century 527 CONTENTS vii 23. Serruys, H. (1963) ‘Early Lamaism in Mongolia’ 538 24. Heissig, W. (1953) ‘A Mongolian Source to the Lamaist Suppression of Shamanism in the 17th Century’ 569 25. Atwood, C. (2006) ‘Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zünghar and Thirteenth- century Mongol Empires’ 610 VOLUME III PART 4: THE QING PERIOD 635 Introduction Christopher Kaplonski 637 26. Perdue, P.C. (1996) ‘Military Mobilization in Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century China, Russia, and Mongolia’ 647 27. Ichinnorov, S. (2005) ‘The Biography of Öndör Gegeen’ 674 28. Riasonovsky, V. (1965) ‘The Khalkha Djirum’ 683 29. Natsagdorj, Sh. (1967) ‘The Economic Basis of Feudalism in Mongolia’ 692 30. Sanjdorj, M. (1980) ‘The Spread of Trade to the Countryside’ 705 31. Elverskog, J. (2004) ‘Things and the Qing: Mongol Culture in the Visual Narrative’ 715 32. Bawden, C.R. (1967) ‘The Mongol Rebellion of 1756–1757’ 750 33. Tsedev, D. (1964) ‘The Social and Economic Situation of the Shav’’ 771 34. Dashbadrakh, D. and J. Gerelbadrakh (2004) ‘The Economy of the Monasteries’ 789 35. Pozdneyev, A.M. (1971) ‘Urga or Da Khüree’ 794 36. Rasidondug, S. and V. Veit (1975) ‘Document 23’ 825 viii CONTENTS 37. Ewing T.E. (1980) ‘Ch’ing Policies in Outer Mongolia 1900– 1911’ 838 PART 5: TWENTIETH-CENTURY MONGOLIA 849 Introduction Christopher Kaplonski 851 38. Bawden, C.R. (1997) Excerpt from Tales of an Old Lama 860 39. Larson, F.A. (1930) ‘The Lamas of Mongolia’ 878 40. Ossendowski, F. (1922) ‘Beasts, Men and Gods’ 889 41. Isono, F. (1979) ‘Soviet Russia and the Mongolian Revolution of 1921’ 910 42. Futaki, H. (2000) ‘A Re-examination of the Establishment of the Mongolian People’s Party, Centring on Dogsom’s Memoir’ 930 43. Rupen, R.A. (1956) ‘The Buriat Intelligentsia’ 951 44. Diluv Khutagt (1982) Excerpts from The Autobiography of the Diluv Khutagt 966 45. Baabar (1999) ‘The Great Purge’ 1001 46. Badamkhatan, S. (1981) Excerpt from The way of life of co-operative herders 1012 47. Boldbaatar, J. (1999) ‘The Eight-hundredth Anniversary of Chinggis Khan: The Revival and Suppression of Mongolian NationalConsciousness’ 1019 48. Baabar (1990) ‘Büü Mart!’ 1028 49. Kaplonski, C. (2004) ‘Democracy Comes to Mongolia’ 1039 50. Humphrey, C. (1993) ‘Avgai Khad: Theft and Social Trust in Post-Communist Mongolia’ 1060 51. Sneath, D. (2002) ‘Producer Groups and the Decollectivization of the Mongolian Pastoral Economy’ 1067 PREFACE I n 2005 Paul Norbury, head of Global Oriental, suggested that we put together an edited collection on the history of Mongolia. Although any anthology of this type is inevitably limited, we have done our best to assemble a set of works in English that readers might find helpful to have brought together in three volumes. Where we can, we have tried to use journal articles since these might be otherwise less accessible to readers than chapters from books explicitly devoted to Mongolian history. These volumes are not intended to offer a single, integrated narrative history of Mongolia. Rather we present a selection of papers that reflect contemporary historical writings on the subject, arranged loosely in chronological order. No selection could, of course, do justice to such a vast topic, but we have tried to include a range of studies on Mongolian history, from classic articles to relatively little-known texts. For good or ill, the emphasis here is on the history of rulers rather than subjects. We concentrate on political, military and religious themes rather than social history; and this reflects, to some degree, both the interests of historians and the nature of the available historical texts. The resulting collection will, we hope, appeal to those who wish to deepen their knowledge of the subject by beginning to study the specialist literature, as well as scholars of the region who may find it convenient to have a diverse set of materials collected into three handy volumes. Many of the pieces included are detailed studies of one or other aspect of a vast historical field. For those readers unfamiliar with the wider frame of Mongolian history into which these pieces fit, we have tried to provide a very brief overview of each of the historical epochs used as sections of this work, so as to place the detailed studies in some sort of context. Inevitably, a collection such as this is bound to have its shortcomings. We have not been able to include as many translations as we would like, for example, and in some cases have had to include relatively short pieces on an important epoch, event or person. Despite its inevitable limitations, we hope the collection will serve as a useful anthology for those, like ourselves, who wish to know more about the history of this fascinating region.