The History of Islamic Political Thought From the Prophet to the Present Second Edition ANTONY BLACK Edinburgh University Press To Aileen, and Christopher © Antony Black, 2001, 2011 First published 2001 by Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh www.euppublishing.com Second edition 2011 Typeset in Trump Medieval by Koinonia, Bury, and printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 0 7486 3986 1 (hardback) ISBN 978 0 7486 3987 8 (paperback) The right of Antony Black to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Contents Analytical Table of Contents vii Abbreviations xi Map xii Time Chart xiv Preface to the Second Revised and Expanded Edition xvi Introduction 1 Part I The Messenger and the Law c.622–1000 1 The Mission of Muhammad 9 2 The Idea of Monarchy under the Umayyads and ÆAbbasids c.661–850 18 3 The Formation of the ShariÆa 32 4 ShiÆism 40 5 The Restoration of Persia c.850–1050 50 6 Knowledge and Power: Philosophy without the Polis 57 Part II Religion and State Power (din wa dawla): The Sunni Doctrine of the State c.900–1220 7 The Theory of the Caliphate 81 8 State and Religion under the Saljuks 91 9 Al-Ghazali: Mysticism and Politics 97 10 The Ethics of Power: Advice-to-Kings (nasihat al-muluk) 111 11 Ibn Rushd 118 12 Sufism and Politics 132 vi THE HISTORY OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT Part III The ShariÆa and the Sword c.1220–1500 13 The Rape of Asia 141 14 Mamluk Ideology and the Sultan-Caliph 145 15 Nasir al-Din Tusi (1201–74): Social Philosophy and Status Groups 149 16 Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328): ShariÆa Governance (al-siyasa al-sharÆiyya) 158 17 The Delhi Sultanate and al-Barani: Statecraft and Morality 164 18 Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406): The Science of Civilisation and the Governance of Islam 169 19 The Decline of Classical Islamic Political Thought 186 Part IV Religious Ideology and Political Control in Early Modern States 20 A New World Order 195 21 The State of the House of Osman (devlet-i al-i Osman) 199 22 The Safavids 223 23 India and the Mughals 240 24 The Decline and Reform of the Ottoman Empire 256 Part V Islam and the West 25 Modernism from the Ottoman Reforms to the Turkish Revolution 281 26 Conservatism and Modernism in Iran 300 27 Islamism 304 28 Islamism, Modernism and the Secular State 324 Conclusion 347 Glossary 353 Bibliography 356 Index of Names 369 Index of Subjects 372 Analytical Table of Contents Abbreviations xi Map xii Time Chart xiv Preface to the Second Revised and Expanded Edition xvi Introduction 1 Part I The Messenger and the Law c.622–1000 1 The Mission of Muhammad 9 Prophet and the tribe; a new kind of political society; the wars of succession 2 The Idea of Monarchy under the Umayyads and ÆAbbasids c.661–850 18 The patrimonial Caliphate; Iranian influences and Ibn MuqaffaÆ; Abu Yusuf; the Caliph al-Ma’mun; al-Jahiz; the failure of the Caliphate 3 The Formation of the ShariÆa 32 The Æulama and the hadith; al-ShafiÆi and the method of al-Sunna (Tradition); political implications 4 ShiÆism 40 The Imami ShiÆites; a theory of leadership; the IsmaÆilis; Fatimid political theory; the Nizaris and violent revolution 5 The Restoration of Persia c.850–1050 50 The dawla of the dynastic state; Firdausi on the ancient kings; Ibn Qutaiba and status groups 6 Knowledge and Power: Philosophy without the Polis 57 Al-Farabi and the Brethren of Purity; methods of knowing; knowledge and Leadership (imama); the political community; the division of labour and social groups; Ibn Sina (Avicenna) viii THE HISTORY OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT Part II Religion and State Power (din wa dawla): The Sunni Doctrine of the State c.900–1220 7 The Theory of the Caliphate 81 Sunni political theology; the Leadership (imama) or Caliphate (khilafa); al-Mawardi on the Caliphate and political power 8 State and Religion under the Saljuks 91 Nizam al-Mulk and the Saljuk regime; Saljuk political theory; the middle way 9 Al-Ghazali: Mysticism and Politics 97 Religious knowledge (Æilm) and politics; the spiritual and the worldly; the middle way; religion and politics; the origin and justification of the state; Caliph and Sultan; religious governance; conclusion 10 The Ethics of Power: Advice-to-Kings (nasihat al-muluk) 111 The religio-political legacy of the Saljuks; the Advice genre: ‘The Sea of Precious Virtue’; justice and the circle of power; ‘The Wisdom of Royal Glory’ and Turkish political culture 11 Ibn Rushd 118 Religion and politics in Spain; philosophy in Spain; Ibn Rushd (Averroes): philosophy and religious knowledge; Ibn Rushd’s political writings; the origin and justification of the state; contemporary observations; Fakhr al-Din Razi in Khwarazm and the circle of power 12 Sufism and Politics 132 Kai Kawus and Najm al-din Razi on the dignity of work; an attempt to restore the Caliph as political leader Part III The ShariÆa and the Sword c.1220–1500 13 The Rape of Asia 141 The Mongol invasions; a revival of Irano-Islamic political culture; the Black Death and Timur 14 Mamluk Ideology and the Sultan-Caliph 145 Integration of religion and polity; the Sultan-Caliph; Ibn JamaÆa and the justification of power based on force 15 Nasir al-Din Tusi (1201–74): Social Philosophy and Status Groups 149 Revival of Imami ShiÆism: the authority of the mujtahid (well- qualified jurist); Nasir al-din Tusi: a synthesis of Jurisprudence, Aristotle and Iranian lore; humanity; political society; political associations; status groups 16 Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328): ShariÆa Governance (al-siyasa al-sharÆiyya) 158 Religion requires state power; the ruler’s responsibilities 17 The Delhi Sultanate and al-Barani: Statecraft and Morality 164 Muslims and Hindus; al-Barani (c.1285–c.1357); secular law 18 Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406): The Science of Civilisation and the Governance of Islam 169 Methodology; human civilisation and its driving forces; power and the state; political economy and the duties of government; ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS ix Islamic and non-Islamic forms of authority; the political situation of Muslims at present; Ibn Khaldun’s political ethics; epistemology; Ibn Khaldun as a social scientist 19 The Decline of Classical Islamic Political Thought 186 Failed states; cultural stagnation; Dawani on status groups; Khunji on the ShariÆa and governance Part IV Religious Ideology and Political Control in Early Modern States 20 A New World Order 195 21 The State of the House of Osman (devlet-i al-i Osman) 199 Political culture and the organisation of public life; religion and state (din ve devlet); the patrimonial sultan; sultanic ideology; religious leadership; self-management and diversity; ShariÆa and kanun (state law); political theory; ‘the order of the world’ and classes 22 The Safavids 223 Sacred and patrimonial monarchy; ideological controversy; al-Karaki (c.1466–1534) and the religio-political authority of the Mujtahid; monarchy versus clergy; the Majlisi revolution and the clerical ascent to power; tribalism and political decline 23 India and the Mughals 240 Akbar (r.1556–1605), the enlightening monarch; religious toleration; a spiritual emperor; orthodox Sunni political thought; Wali Allah of Delhi (1703–62) on human nature and civilisation 24 The Decline and Reform of the Ottoman Empire 256 The decline and reform school; Mustafa ÆAli (1541–1600); al-Aqhisari on status groups; why is the state in decline? What should be done?; the use of history and of Ibn Khaldun; advocates of stricter religious observance; the beginnings of Westernisation Part V Islam and the West 25 Modernism from the Ottoman Reforms to the Turkish Revolution 281 The Ottoman Tanzimat (reform) (1839–71); parliamentary liberalism and Islamic values: the Young Ottomans; Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi; Jamal al-Din al-Afghani: rationalism, republicanism and the religio-political revival of Islam; the Turkish revolution 26 Conservatism and Modernism in Iran 300 27 Islamism 304 The Muslim Brethren, al-Maududi, Sayyid Qutb; Khomeini and the Iranian revolution of 1979; the Constitution of 1979 28 Islamism, Modernism and the Secular State 324 Constitutional theory; religion and politics; hermeneutics; the secular state; economic justice; international relations Conclusion 347 x THE HISTORY OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT Glossary 353 Bibliography 356 Index of Names 369 Index of Subjects 372