Project Gutenberg's The Historical Geography of Europe., by Edward A. Freeman This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license Title: The Historical Geography of Europe. Vol. I.—Text Author: Edward A. Freeman Release Date: February 11, 2020 [EBook #61375] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY I *** Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net THE HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE VOL. I. LONDON: PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET THE HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE BY EDWARD A. FREEMAN, D.C.L., LL.D. HONORARY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, OXFORD IN TWO VOLUMES VOL. I.—TEXT LONDON LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 1881 All rights reserved PREFACE. It is now several years since this book was begun. It has been delayed by a crowd of causes, by a temporary loss of strength, by enforced absence from England, by other occupations and interruptions of various kinds. I mention this only because of the effect which I fear it has had on the book itself. It has been impossible to make it, what a book should, if possible, be, the result of one continuous effort. The mere fact that the kindness of the publishers allowed the early part to be printed some years back has, I fear, led to some repetition and even contradiction. A certain change of plan was found unavoidable. It proved impossible to go through the whole volume according to the method of the earlier chapters. Instead of treating Europe as a whole, I found it needful to divide it into several large geographical groups. The result is that each of the later chapters has had to go over again some small amount of ground which had been already gone over in the earlier chapters. In some cases later lights have led to some changes of view or expression. I have marked these, as far as I could, in the Additions and Corrections. If in any case I have failed to do so, the later statement is the one which should be relied on. I hope that I have made the object of the work clear in the Introductory Chapter. It is really a very humble one. It aims at little more than tracing out the extent of various states at different times, and at attempting to place the various changes in their due relation to one another and to their causes. I am not, strictly speaking, writing history. I have little to do with the internal affairs of any country. I have looked at events mainly with reference to their effect on the European map. This has led to a reversal of what to many will seem the natural order of things. In a constitutional history of Europe, our own island would claim the very first place. In my strictly geographical point of view, I believe I am right in giving it the last. I of course assume in the reader a certain elementary knowledge of European history, at least as much as may be learned from my own General Sketch. Names and things which have been explained there I have not thought it needful to explain again. I need hardly say that I found myself far more competent to deal with some parts of the work than with others. No one can take an equal interest in, or have an equal knowledge of, all branches of so wide a subject. Some parts of the book will represent real original research; others must be dealt with in a far less thorough way, and will represent only knowledge got up for the occasion. In such cases the reader will doubtless find out the difference for himself. But I have felt my own deficiencies most keenly in the German part. No part of European history is to me more attractive than the early history of the German kingdom as such. No part is to me less attractive than the endless family divisions and unions of the smaller German states. In the Slavonic part I have found great difficulty in following any uniform system of spelling. I consulted several Slavonic scholars. Each gave me advice, and each supported his own advice by arguments which I should have thought unanswerable, if I had not seen the arguments in support of the wholly different advice given me by the others. When the teachers differ so widely, the learner will, I hope, be forgiven, if the result is sometimes a little chaotic. I have tried to write Slavonic names so as to give some approach to the sound, as far as I know it. But I fear that I have succeeded very imperfectly. In such a crowd of names, dates, and the like, there must be many small inaccuracies. In the case of the smaller dates, those which do not mark the great epochs of history, nothing is easier than to get wrong by a year or so. Sometimes there is an actual difference of statement in different authorities. Sometimes there is a difference in the reckoning of the year. For instance, In what year was Calais lost to England? We should say 1558. A writer at the time {i} {ii} {iii} would say 1557. Then again there is no slip of either pen or press so easy as putting a wrong figure, and, except in the case of great and obvious dates, or again when the mistake is very far wrong indeed, there is no slip of pen or press so likely to be passed by in revision. And again there is often room for question as to the date which should be marked. In recording a transfer of territory from one power to another, what should be the date given? The actual military occupation and the formal diplomatic cession are often several years apart. Which of these dates should be chosen? I have found it hard to follow any fixed rule in such matters. Sometimes the military occupation seems the most important point, sometimes the diplomatic cession. I believe that in each case where a question of this sort might arise, I could give a reason for the date which has been chosen; but here there has been no room to enter into discussions. I can only say that I shall be deeply thankful to any one who will point out to me any mistakes or seeming mistakes in these or any other matters. The maps have been a matter of great difficulty. I somewhat regret that it has been found needful to bind them separately from the text, because this looks as if they made some pretensions to the character of an historical atlas. To this they lay no claim. They are meant simply to illustrate the text, and in no way enter into competition either with such an elaborate collection as that of Spruner-Menke, or even with collections much less elaborate than that. Those maps are meant to be companions in studying the history of the several periods. Mine do not pretend to do more than to illustrate changes of boundary in a general way. It was found, as the work went on, that it was better on the whole to increase the number of maps, even at the expense of making each map smaller. There are disadvantages both ways. In the maps of South-Eastern Europe, for instance, it was found impossible to show the small states which arose in Greece after the Latin conquest at all clearly. But this evil seemed to be counterbalanced by giving as many pictures as might be of the shifting frontier of the Eastern Empire towards the Bulgarian, the Frank, and the Ottoman. In one or two instances I have taken some small liberties with my dates. Thus, for instance, the map of the greatest extent of the Saracen dominion shows all the countries which were at any time under the Saracen power. But there was no one moment when the Saracen power took in the whole extent shown in the map. Sind and Septimania were lost before Crete and Sicily were won. But such a view as I have given seemed on the whole more instructive than it would have been to substitute two or three maps showing the various losses and gains at a few years’ distance from one another. I have to thank a crowd of friends, including some whom I have never seen, for many hints, and for much help given in various ways. Such are Professor Pauli of Göttingen, Professor Steenstrup of Copenhagen, Professor Romanos of Corfu, M. J.-B. Galiffe of Geneva, Dr. Paul Turner of Budapest, Professor A. W. Ward of Manchester, the Rev. H. F. Tozer, Mr. Ralston, Mr. Morfill, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and my son-in-law Arthur John Evans, whose praise is in all South-Slavonic lands. Somerleaze, Wells: December 16, 1880. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Definition of Historical Geography 1 Its relation to kindred studies 1-2 Distinction between geographical and political names 3-5 § 1. Geographical Aspect of Europe. Boundaries of Europe and Asia 5-6 General geography of the two continents—the great peninsulas 6-7 § 2. Effects of Geography on History. Beginnings of history in the southern peninsulas—characteristics of Greece and Italy 7-8 {iv} {v} {vi} Advance and extent of the Roman dominion; the Mediterranean lands, Gaul, and Britain 8-9 Effects of the geographical position of Germany, France, Spain, Scandinavia, Britain 9-10 Effect of geographical position on the colonizing powers 10 Joint working of geographical position and national character 11 § 3. Geographical Distribution of Races. Europe an Aryan continent—non-Aryan remnants and latter settlements 12 Fins and Basques 13 Order of Aryan settlements; Greeks and Italians 13 Celts, Teutons, Slaves, Lithuanians 14-15 Displacement and assimilation among the Aryan races 16 Intrusion of non-Aryans; Saracens 16 Turanian intrusions; Bulgarians; Magyars; Ottomans; differences in their history 17 CHAPTER II. GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. § 1. The Eastern or Greek Peninsula. Geographical and historical characteristics of the Eastern, Greek, or Byzantine peninsula 18-19 Its chief divisions; Thrace and Illyria; their relations to Greece 19-20 Greece Proper and its peninsulas 20-21 Peloponnêsos 21 § 2. Insular and Asiatic Greece. Extent of Continuous Hellas 21 The Islands 22 Asiatic Greece 22-23 § 3. Ethnology of the Eastern Peninsula. The Greeks and the kindred races 23 Illyrians, Albanians, or Skipetar 24 Inhabitants of Epeiros, Macedonia, Sicily, and Italy 24 Pelasgians 24-25 The Greek Nation 25 § 4. Earliest Geography of Greece and the Neighbouring Lands. Homeric Greece: its extent and tribal divisions 25-27 Use of the name Epeiros 26 The cities: their groupings unlike those of later times; supremacy of Mykênê 27 Extent of Greek colonization in Homeric times 28 The Asiatic catalogue 28 Probable kindred of all the neighbouring nations 28 Phœnician and Greek settlements in the islands 28 § 5. Change from Homeric to Historic Greece. Changes in Peloponnêsos; Dorian and Aitolian settlements 29 Later divisions of Peloponnêsos 29-30 {vii} Change in Northern Greece; Thessaly 30 Akarnania and the Corinthian colonies 31 Foundation and destruction of cities 31 § 6. The Greek Colonies. The Ægæan and Asiatic colonies 32-33 Early greatness of the Asiatic cities; Milêtos 32 Their submission to Lydians and Persians 32-33 The Thracian colonies; abiding greatness of Thessalonikê and Byzantion 33 More distant colonies; Sicily, Italy, Dalmatia 33-34 Parts of the Mediterranean not colonized by the Greeks; Phœnician settlements; struggles in Sicily and Cyprus 34-35 Greek colonies in Africa, Gaul, and Spain 35 Colonies on the Euxine; abiding greatness of Cherson and Trebizond 36 Beginning of the artificial Greek nation 36 § 7. Growth of Macedonia and Epeiros. Growth of Macedonia; Philip; Alexander and the Successors; effects of their conquests 37 Epeiros under Pyrrhos; Athamania 37 The Macedonian kingdoms; Egypt; Syria 38 Independent states in Asia; Pergamos 38 Asiatic states; advance of Greek culture 39 Free cities; Hêrakleia 39 Sinôpê; Bosporos 39 § 8. Later Geography of Independent Greece. The Confederations; Achaia, Aitolia; smaller confederations 40 Macedonian possessions 40 First Roman possessions east of the Hadriatic 40 Progress of Roman conquest in Macedonia and Greece 41 Special character of Greek history 42 CHAPTER III. FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Meanings of the name Italy; its extent under the Roman commonwealth 43 Characteristics of the Italian peninsula; the great islands 44 § 1. The Inhabitants of Italy and Sicily. Ligurians and Etruscans 45 The Italian nations; Latins and Oscans 45-46 Other nations; Iapygians; Gauls; Veneti; use of the name Venetia 46-47 Greek colonies in Italy; Kymê and Ankôn 47 The southern colonies; their history 47-48 Inhabitants of Sicily; Sikanians and Sikels 48 Phœnician and Greek settlements; rivalry of Aryan and Semitic powers 48-49 § 2. Growth of the Roman Power in Italy. {viii} {ix} Gradual conquest of Italy; different positions of the Italian states 49 Origin of Rome; its Latin element dominant 49-50 Early Latin dominion of Rome 50 Conquest of Veii; more distant wars 50 Incorporation of the Italian states 50-51 § 3. The Western Provinces. Nature of the Roman provinces 51 Eastern and Western provinces 52 First Roman possessions in Sicily; conquest of Syracuse 53 State of Sicily; its Greek civilization 53 Sardinia and Corsica 53-54 Cisalpine Gaul 54-55 Liguria; Venetia; Istria; foundation of Aquileia 55 Spain; its inhabitants; Iberians; Celts; Greek and Phœnician colonies 55-56 Conquest and Romanization of Spain 56-57 Transalpine Gaul; the Province 57 Conquests of Cæsar; threefold division of Gaul 57-58 Boundaries of Gaul purely geographical; survival of nomenclature 57-58 Roman Africa; restoration of Carthage 58-60 § 4. The Eastern Provinces. Contrast between the Eastern and Western provinces; Greek civilization in the East 60 Distinctions among the Eastern provinces; boundary of Tauros 60-61 The Illyrian provinces; kingdom of Skodra; conquest of Dalmatia and Istria 62-63 The outlying Greek lands: Crete, Cyprus, Kyrênê 63 The Asiatic provinces; province of Asia; Mithridatic War; independence of Lykia 64 Syria; Palestine 65 Rome and Parthia 65 Conquest of Egypt; the Roman Peace 66 § 5. Conquests under the Empire. Conquests from Augustus to Nero; incorporation of vassal kingdoms 66-67 Attempted conquest of Germany; frontiers of Rhine and Danube; conquests on the Danube 67-68 Attempt on Arabia 68 Annexation of Thrace and Byzantion 68 Conquest of Britain; the wall 69 Conquests of Trajan; his Asiatic conquests surrendered by Hadrian 70 Arabia Petræa 70 Dacia; change of the name 70-71 Roman, Greek, and Oriental parts of the Empire 71 CHAPTER IV. THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. § 1. The Later Geography of the Empire. Changes under the Empire; loss of old divisions 73 {x} New divisions of Italy under Augustus 74 Division of the Empire under Diocletian 74-75 The four Prætorian Prefectures 75 Prefecture of the East; its character 75-76 Its dioceses; the East; Egypt, Asia, Pontos 76 Diocese of Thrace; provinces of Scythia and Europa 76-77 Great cities of the Eastern prefecture 77 Prefecture of Illyricum; position of Greece 77-78 Dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia; province of Achaia 78 Prefecture of Italy; its extent 78 Dioceses of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa; greatness of Carthage 79 Prefecture of Gaul 79 Diocese of Spain; its African territory 79 Dioceses of Gaul and Britain; province of Valentia 79-80 § 2. The Division of the Empire. Change in the position of Rome 80 Division of the Empire, a.d. 395 81 Rivalry with Parthia and Persia inherited by the Eastern Empire 81-82 Teutonic invasions; no Teutonic settlements in the East 82-83 § 3. The Teutonic Settlements within the Empire. The Wandering of the Nations 83 New nomenclature of the Teutonic nations 83-84 Warfare on the Rhine and Danube; Roman outposts beyond the rivers 84 Teutonic confederations; Marcomanni; Quadi 84-85 Franks, Alemans, Saxons; Germans within the Empire 85-86 Beginning of national kingdoms 86 Loss of the Western provinces of Rome 86 Settlements within the Empire by land and by sea 87 Franks, Burgundians, Goths, Vandals 87-88 Early history of the Goths 88-89 The West-Gothic kingdom in Gaul and Spain 89-90 Alans, Suevi, Vandals; the Vandals in Africa 89-90 The Franks; use of the name Francia 91 Alemans, Thuringians; Low-Dutch tribes 91 The Frankish dominions; Roman Germany Teutonized afresh; peculiar position of the Franks 91-93 Celtic remnant in Armorica or Britanny 93 The Burgundians; various uses of the name Burgundy; separate history of Provence 93-94 Inroads of the Huns; battle of Châlons; origin of Venice 94 Nominal reunion of the Empire in 476 94 Reigns of Odoacer and Theodoric 94-95 § 4. Settlement of the English in Britain. Withdrawal of the Roman troops from Britain 95 Special character of the English Conquest of Britain 96 {xi} The Low-Dutch settlers, Angles, Saxons, Jutes; origin of the name English 97 The Welsh and Scots 98 § 5. The Eastern Empire. Comparison of the two Empires; no Teutonic settlements in the Eastern 98 The Tetraxite Goths 98 Rivalry with Parthia continued under the revived Persian kingdom 98-99 Position of Armenia 99 Momentary conquests of Trajan 99 Conquests of Marcus, Severus, and Diocletian; cessions of Jovian 100 Division of Armenia; Hundred Years’ Peace 100 Summary 101-102 CHAPTER V. THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. § 1. The Reunion of the Empire. Continued existence of the Empire; position of the Teutonic kings 103 Extent of the Empire at the accession of Justinian 104 Conquests of Justinian; their effects 104-106 Provence ceded to the Franks 105 § 2. Settlement of the Lombards in Italy. Early history of the Lombards; Gepidæ, Avars 106-107 Possibility of Teutonic powers on the Danube 107 Lombard conquest of Italy; its partial nature; territory kept by the Empire 107-108 § 3. Rise of the Saracens. Loss of the Spanish province by the Empire 108 Wars of Chosroes and Heraclius 109 Extension of Roman power on the Euxine 109-110 Relation of the Arabs to Rome and Persia 110 Union of the Arabs under Mahomet; renewed Aryan and Semitic strife 110 Loss of the Eastern and African provinces of Rome 111 Saracen conquest of Persia 111 Conquest of Spain; Saracen province in Gaul 111-112 Effects of the Saracen conquests; distinction between the Latin, Greek, and Eastern provinces 112 Greatest extent of Saracen provinces 112 Loss of Septimania 113 § 4. Settlements of the Slavonic Nations. Movements of the Slaves; Avars, Magyars, &c. 113-114 Geographical separation of the Slaves 114 Analogy between Teutons and Slaves 114 Slavonic settlements under Heraclius; the Dalmatian cities; displacement of the Illyrians 115 Slavonic settlements in Greece 115-116 Settlement of the Bulgarians 116 {xii} Curtailment of the Empire; moral influence of Constantinople 116-117 § 5. The Transfer of the Western Empire to the Franks. Conquests of the Franks in Germany and Gaul 117-119 Their position in Germany, Northern Gaul, and Southern Gaul 119-120 Division of the Frankish dominion; Austria and Neustria 120-121 Use of the name Francia; Teutonic and Latin Francia; modern forms of the name 121 The Karlings; their conquests; German character of their power 121-122 The great powers of the eighth century: Romans, Franks, Saracens 122 Character of the Caliphate; its divisions 122 Relations between the Franks and the Empire 123 Lombard conquest of the Exarchate 123 Conquest of the Lombards by Charles the Great; he holds Lombardy as a separate kingdom 123 His Roman title of Patrician 123-124 Effects of his Imperial coronation; final division of the Empire 124 The two Empires become severally German and Greek; their separation and rivalry 124-125 The two Empires and the two Caliphates 125-126 Extent of the Carolingian Empire 126 Conquest of Saxony; dealings with Scandinavia; frontier of the Eider 126-127 Relations with the Slaves; overthrow of the Avars 127 The Spanish March 128 Divisions of the Empire; kingdoms of Aquitaine and Italy 128 Use of the names Francia, Gallia, Germania 129 § 6. Northern Europe. Lands beyond the Empire: Scandinavia and Britain 129 Stages of English Conquest in Britain; Teutonic and Celtic states 129-130 Supremacy of Wessex 130 Denmark; Norway; Sweden 130-131 Different directions of the Scandinavian settlements 131 Summary 131-133 Religious changes 132 Note on the Slavonic settlements 133 CHAPTER VI. THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. § 1. The Division of the Frankish Empire. Break-up of the Frankish power; origin of the states of modern Europe 134 Kingdoms of Italy and Aquitaine 134 Division of 817 135 Union of Neustria and Aquitaine; first glimpses of modern France 135 Division of Verdun; Eastern and Western Francia; Lotharingia; the Western Kingdom or Karolingia 137 Middle Kingdom or Burgundy 137 Union under Charles the Fat; division on his deposition 137 {xiii} {xiv} No formal titles used; various names for the German Kingdom 138 Connexion between the German Kingdom and the Roman Empire 139 Extent of the German Kingdom; its duchies and marks 139-140 Lotharingia 140-141 Extent of the Western Kingdom 141 Its great fiefs; Aquitaine; France; Normandy cut off from France 142 Origin of the French kingdom and nation; union of the duchy of France with the Western kingdom 143 New use of the word France; title of Rex Francorum 143-144 Paris the kernel of France 144 Various uses of the name Burgundy 144 The French Duchy; the Middle Kingdom; Transjurane and Cisjurane Burgundy 144-145 Great cities of the Burgundian kingdom 145 Separation of Burgundy from the Frankish kingdom; its union with Germany 145-146 Its later history; mainly swallowed up by France, but partly represented by Switzerland 146 Kingdom of Italy; its extent; separate principalities 146-147 Italy represents the Lombard kingdom; Milan its capital 147 Abeyance of the Western Empire; its restoration by Otto the Great; the three Imperial kingdoms 147-148 Rivalry between France and the Empire 148 § 2. The Eastern Empire. Rivalry of the Eastern and Western Empires and Churches; Greek character of the Eastern Empire; fluctuations in its extent 149 The Themes; Asiatic Themes 149-151 The European Themes; Hellas; Lombardy; Sicily 151-152 Older Greek names supplanted by new ones 151 Character of the European and Asiatic dominion of the Empire; its supremacy by sea 152 Losses and gains; Crete; Sicily; Italy; Dalmatia; Greece; Syria; Bulgaria; Cherson 152-153 Greatness of the Empire under Basil the Second 153 § 3. Origin of the Spanish Kingdoms. Special position of Spain; the Saracen conquest 153-154 Growth of the Christian states 154-155 Castile; Aragon; Portugal 155 Break-up of the Western Caliphate 156 § 4. Origin of the Slavonic States. Slavonic and Turanian invasions of the Eastern Empire; Bulgarians; Magyars; Great Moravia 156-157 Special character of the Hungarian kingdom; effects of its religious connexion with the West 157 The Northern and Southern Slaves split asunder by the Magyars 158 The South-eastern Slaves 158 The North-western Slaves; Bohemia; Poland 159 Special position of Russia 159 {xv} § 5. Northern Europe. Scandinavian settlements 159-160 Growth of the kingdom of England 160 The Danish invasions; division between Ælfred and Guthrum; Bernicia; Cumberland 161 Second West-Saxon advance; Wessex grows into England; submission of Scotland and Strathclyde; Cumberland and Lothian 162 Use of the Imperial titles by the English kings; Northern Empire of Cnut; England finally united by the Norman Conquest 162-163 Summary 163-165 CHAPTER VII. THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. Permanence of ecclesiastical divisions; they preserve earlier divisions; case of Lyons and Rheims 166-167 Patriarchates, Provinces, Dioceses 167 Bishoprics within and without the Empire 167-168 § 1. The Great Patriarchates. The Patriarchates suggested by the Prefectures 168 Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem 168-169 Later Patriarchates 169-170 § 2. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Italy. Great numbers and smaller importance of the Italian bishoprics 170 Rivals of Rome; Milan, Aquileia, Ravenna 171 The immediate Roman province; other metropolitan sees 171-172 § 3. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Gaul and Germany. Gaulish and German dioceses 172 Provinces of Southern Gaul; position of Lyons 172-173 New metropolitan sees; Toulouse, Alby, Avignon, Paris; comparison of civil and ecclesiastical divisions 174 Provinces of Northern Gaul and Germany; history of Mainz 178-179 The archiepiscopal electors; other German provinces; Salzburg, Bremen, Magdeburg 176-177 Modern arrangements in France, Germany, and the Netherlands 177 § 4. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Spain. Peculiarities of Spanish ecclesiastical geography; effects of the Saracen conquest 178 Gothic and later dioceses; neglect of the Pyrenæan barrier 178-179 § 5. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of the British Islands. Analogy between Britain and Spain 179 Tribal nature of the Celtic episcopate 179-180 Scheme of Gregory the Great; the two English provinces; relation of Scotland to York 180-181 Foundation of the English sees; territorial bishoprics 181 Canterbury and its suffragan; effects of the Norman Conquest 181-182 Province of York; Scotland and Ireland 182-183 {xvi} {xvii} § 6. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Northern and Eastern Europe. The Scandinavian provinces; Lund, Upsala, Trondhjem 184 Poland and neighbouring lands; Gnezna, Riga, Leopol 184-185 Provinces of Hungary and Dalmatia 186 CHAPTER VIII. THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. The German Kingdom; its relation to the Western Empire; falling off of Italy and Burgundy 188-190 Loss of territory by the German kingdom; its extension to the north-east 190-191 Geographical contrast of the earlier and the later Empire 191 § 1. The Kingdom of Germany. Changes of boundaries and nomenclature in Germany; Saxony; Bavaria; Austria; Burgundy; Prussia 191-192 Extent of the Kingdom; fluctuations of its western boundary; Lorraine; Elsass; the left bank of the Rhine 192-194 Fluctuations on the Burgundian frontier; union of Burgundy with the Empire 194 Frontier of Germany and Italy; union of the crowns 195 Northern and eastern advance of the Empire; the marks 195 Hungarian frontier; marks of Austria, Carinthia, and Carniola 196 Danish frontier; Danish mark; boundary of the Eider 196 The Slavonic frontier 197 The Saxon mark; Slavonic princes of Mecklenburg, Lübeck; the Hansa 198-199 Marks of Brandenburg, Lausitz, and Meissen 199 Bohemia and Moravia 199 Polish frontier; Pomerania, Silesia 200 Germanization of the Slavonic lands 200-201 Internal geography; growth of the principalities 201 Growth of the marchlands; Brandenburg or Prussia, and Austria; analogies elsewhere 202 Decline of the duchies; end of the Gauverfassung 202 Growth of the House of Austria; separation of Switzerland and the Netherlands 203 The Circles 203 Powers holding lands within and without the Empire; Austria; Sweden; Brandenburg and Prussia; Hannover and Great Britain 203-204 Dissolution of the kingdom; the Confederation 204 Greatness of Prussia and Austria 204 The new Empire 204 Germany under the Saxon and Frankish kings; vanishing of Francia; analogy of Wessex 205-206 Changes in the twelfth century; beginning of Brandenburg and Austria; the duchies and the circles 206-207 Duchy of Saxony; its divisions and growth 207 Break-up of the duchy; Westfalia; the new Saxony 207 Duchy of Brunswick; electorate and kingdom of Hannover 208 The new Saxony; Lauenburg; the Saxon Electorate 208-209 The North Mark of Saxony or Mark of Brandenburg 209 House of Hohenzollern; union of Brandenburg and Prussia 210 {xviii} Advances in Pomerania, Westfalia, &c. 210 German character of the Prussian state; its contrast with Austria; use of the name Prussia 210-211 Conquest of Silesia; Polish acquisitions of Prussia; East Friesland 211-212 Saxon Possessions of Denmark and Sweden 212-213 Free cities of Saxony; the Hansa; the cities and the bishoprics 213-214 Duchy of Francia; held by the bishops of Würzburg; the Franconian circle 214 The Rhenish circles; Hessen; Bamberg; Nürnberg; the ecclesiastical states on the Rhine 214-215 Palatinate of the Rhine; Upper Palatinate 215 Bavaria; its relations towards the Palatinate and towards Austria 215 Archbishopric of Salzburg 215 Lotharingia; falling off from the Empire; the later Lorraine and Elsass 216 Swabia; ecclesiastical powers 216 Swabian lands of the Confederates 216 Baden and Württemberg 216 Circle of Austria; house of Habsburg 217 Extent of its German lands; Tyrol; Elsass; loss of Swabian lands 217 Bohemia and its dependencies 217 Trent and Brixen 217 Circle of Burgundy; not purely German; its origin 218 § 2. The Confederation and Empire of Germany. Germany changes from a kingdom to a confederation 218 The Bund; the new Confederation and Empire; the Empire still federal 219 Wars of the French Revolution; loss of the left bank of the Rhine 220 Suppression of free cities and ecclesiastical states; new electorates 220 Peace of Pressburg; new kingdoms; cessions made by Austria 221 Title of ‘Emperor of Austria;’ Confederation of the Rhine; end of the Western Empire 221 German territories of Denmark and Sweden 221-222 Losses of Prussia and Austria; French annexations 222 Kingdoms of Saxony and Westfalia; Grand duchy of Frankfurt 222 Germany wiped out of the map 222 Losses of Prussia; Danzig; duchy of Warsaw 222-223 The German Confederation; princes holding lands within and without the Confederation; kingdom of Hanover 223 Increase of Prussian territory; dismemberment of Saxony 224 Lands recovered by Austria; German possessions of Denmark and the Netherlands; Sweden withdraws from Germany 224-225 Comparison of Prussia and Austria; Hannover 225 Kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg; other German states; the free cities; Lüttich passes to Belgium 226-227 Revival of German national life 227 Affairs of Luxemburg 228-229 War of Sleswick and Holstein; the duchies ceded to Austria and Prussia 228 War of 1866; North German Confederation; exclusion of Austria; great advance of Prussia 228-229 {xix} War with France; the new German Empire; recovery of Elsass-Lothringen 229-230 Comparison of the old kingdom and the new Empire; name of Prussia 230-231 § 3. The Kingdom of Italy. Small geographical importance of the kingdom; changes on the Alpine frontier 231-232 Case of Trieste 233 Apulia, Sicily, Venice, no part of the kingdom; their relation to the Eastern Empire 233-234 Special history of the house of Savoy 234 Extent of the kingdom; Neustria and Austria; Æmilia, Tuscany; Romagna 234-235 Lombardy proper; the marches 235 Comparison of Germany and Italy; the commonwealths, the tyrants, the Popes; four stages of Italian history 235-236 Northern Italy; the Marquesses of Montferrat; the Lombard cities; the Veronese march 236-238 Central Italy; Romagna and the march of Ancona; the Tuscan commonwealths; Pisa and Genoa; Rome and the Popes 238-239 The tyrannies; Spanish dominion: practical abeyance of the Empire in Italy; Imperial and Papal fiefs 239-240 Palaiologoi at Montferrat; house of Visconti at Milan; the duchy of Milan; its dismemberment; duchy of Parma and Piacenza 240-242 Land power of Venice 242-243 Other principalities; duchy of Mantua, of Ferrara and Modena; difference in their tenure 243-244 Romagna; Bologna; Urbino; advance of the Popes 244 The Tuscan cities; Lucca; rivalry of Pisa and Genoa; Siena; Florence 245 Duchy of Florence; grand duchy of Tuscany 246 § 4. The Later Geography of Italy. The kingdom practically forgotten; position of Charles the Fifth 246 Italy a geographical expression; changes in the Italian states 246-247 Dominion of the two branches of the house of Austria 247 Italy mapped into larger states; exceptions at Monaco and San Marino 247 Venice; Milan Spanish and Austrian; its dismemberment in favour of Savoy; end of Montferrat and Mantua 248-249 Parma and Piacenza; separation of Modena and Ferrara; Genoa and Lucca; Grand Duchy of Tuscany; advance of the Popes 249 The Norman kingdom of Sicily; Benevento 250 The Two Sicilies; their various unions and divisions; their relations to the houses of Austria, Savoy and Bourbon 250-251 Use of the name Sardinia 251 Wars of the French Revolution; the new republics; Treaty of Campo Formio; Piedmont joined to France 251-253 Restoration of the Pope and the King of the Two Sicilies 253 The French kingdoms; Etruria; Italy 253 Various annexations; Rome becomes French; Murat King of Naples 253-254 Italy under French dominion; revival of the Italian name 254-255 Settlement of 1814-1815; the princes restored, but not the commonwealths 255 Austrian kingdom of Lombardy and Venice; Genoa annexed by Piedmont 255-256 The smaller states; the Papal states; Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 256 {xx} {xxi} Union of Italy comes from Piedmont; earlier movements; war of 1859; Kingdom of Italy: Savoy and Nizza ceded to France 257-258 Recovery of Venetia and Rome; parts of the kingdom not recovered 258 Freedom of San Marino 258 § 5. The Kingdom of Burgundy. Union of Burgundy with Germany; dying out of the kingdom; chiefly swallowed up by France, but represented by Switzerland 258-259 Boundaries of the kingdom; fluctuation; Romance tongue prevails in it 259 History of the Burgundian Palatinate; Besançon; Montbeliard 261 The Lesser Burgundy; partly German 261 The Dukes of Zähringen; the ecclesiastical states; the free cities; the free lands; growth of the Old League of High Germany 262 Growth of Savoy; Burgundian possessions of its counts 263 States between the Palatinate and the Mediterranean; Bresse and Bugey; principalities and free cities 263 County of Provence; its connexion with France 263-264 Progress of French annexation: 1310-1791: Lyons; the Dauphiny: Vienne; Valence; Provence; Avignon and Venaissin 264-265 Nizza 265 History of Orange 265-266 States which have split off from the Imperial kingdoms: Switzerland; Savoy; the duchy of Burgundy by Belgium and the Netherlands 266-267 The Austrian power; its position as a marchland; its union with Hungary; its relation to Eastern Europe 267-268 § 6. The Swiss Confederation. German origin of the Confederation; popular errors; sketch of Swiss history 268-270 The Three Lands; the cities: Luzern, Zürich, Bern; the Eight Ancient Cantons 270 Allies and subjects; dominion of Zürich and Bern; conquests from Austria 270-271 Italian conquests; first conquests from Savoy; League of Wallis 271-272 The Thirteen Cantons 272 League of Graubünden; further Italian and Savoyard conquests 272-273 History of Geneva; territory restored to Savoy; division of Gruyères 273-274 The Allied States; Neufchâtel; Constanz 274 The Confederation independent of the Empire; its position as a middle state 274-275 Wars of the French Revolution; Helvetic Republic; freedom of the subject lands; annexations to France 275-276 Act of Mediation; the nineteen cantons 276 The present Swiss Confederation 276 History of Neufchâtel 276 § 7. The State of Savoy. Position and growth of Savoy; three divisions of the Savoyard lands; popular confusions 277-278 The Savoyard power originally Burgundian; Maurienne; Aosta 278 First Italian possessions 279 Burgundian advance; lands north of the lake 280-281 Relations to Geneva, France, and Bern 281-282 {xxii}