THE HERO IN THE POETRY OF MATTHEW ARNOLD APPROVED: - v~ ' /X / TC. let >»- >- r y\ .. / ' tt: (,ic i f Major Frofessor Minor (Professor Director of eparturient, of English Dean of the Gradual.e Sch<x THE HERO IN THE POETRY OF MATTHEW ARNOLD THESIS Presented to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS By Judith Dianne Mackey, B. A, Denton, Texas August, 1967 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter I. FROM SCEPTICISM TO THE HEROIC CONCEPT: THE QUEST FOR INTELLECTUAL SECURITY . . .. 1 II. THE GENESIS OF A NEW SYNTHESIS 6 III. MATTHEW ARNOLD: THE EVOLUTION OF A STOIC 35 IV. MATTHEW ARNOLD: THE STOIC SYNTHESIS 62 V. CONCLUSION 113 BIBLIOGRAPHY 123 in CHAPTER I FROM SCEPTICISM TO THE HEROIC CONCEPT: THE QUEST FOR INTELLECTUAL SECURITY The nineteenth century constitutes, in the history of Western ideas, a period during which old beliefs and methods of thinking were questioned and criticized, and new intel- lectual and emotional responses to life were not yet firmly established. "Old institutions were undermined, new scien- tific discoveries appeared to be destroying the foundations of the Christian faith, as it was then conceived, and doubt -i like a grey mist spread over the whole field of thought." Evolutionary theories and Marxian Socialism shook the faith of the educated, and the Oxford Movement vainly attempted to create a new religious sentiment which could withstand the . 2 stress of these revolutionary ideas. In the wake of the destruction of old beliefs and ideas, violent and varying reactions occurred, primarily among the intelligentsia of the day. Some embraced the thought then in 1 Charles H. Harvey, Matthew Arnold (London, 1931), p. 45 • 2 Lafcadio Hearn, Appreciations of Poetry, edited by John Erskine (New York, 1916), p. 300. 1 vogue, while others, unable to bear the loss of their old beliefs, found solace in religion. In addition to these two groups, there was a third composed of those who had been brought up in a deeply religious atmosphere, but who, as a result of their formal education, were drawn toward the new scientific and philosophical thought which was sceptical of traditional religious beliefs. Men of this persuasion, one of whom was Matthew Arnold, found it impossible, intellectually, to remain loyal to the old way; the new ideas and attitudes to which they were attracted, however, often caused them a great deal of emotional anguish because of the psychological difficulties involved in synthesizing the spiritual convic- 3 tions of their childhood with their newly-acquired beliefs. Thus many of these intellectuals were torn by the inner conflict between their emotional need for something certain and safe in which to believe and their awareness that the • existence of absolute safety and certainty could not be proved. No longer able to believe in those absolute values which had provided human security and consolation for so many centuries and intensely aware of what had been lost, such men were driven to create a new Weltanschauung which could at once satisfy their emotional longings and intellectual standards. -^Ibid. 3 Out of the struggle for a new value system which could comfort man during the transitional "interval between the death of old ideas and the birth of new convictions"^ emerged the concept of the hero peculiar to the nineteenth-century. The most outstanding feature of this concept is that in much of the literature of the period the hero took the place of God, who had been dethroned by scepticism. The hero was depicted by several authors as capable of saving the indivi- dual as well as society from the emotional and intellectual confusion of the time. Of the nineteenth-century figures who propagated the myth of the hero, two of the most repre- sentative were Thomas Carlyle and Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche. Like Matthew Arnold, Carlyle and Nietzsche were reared under the influence of the traditional religion of the time but were exposed, as young men, to ideas which led them to question this theological value system. The doubt resulting from this questioning seemed to cause both to become dissatis- fied with their world and its beliefs. This dissatisfaction and their great personal need to believe in something—any- thing—led each to delineate in his prose works a concept of heroism which served 'as a substitute for the lost beliefs of childhood. Both men suggested that individuals, by recognizing 4Ibid,. , p. 315. 4 and following their heroes, could save themselves and society from the chaos of the time. Both, too, had visions of gran- deur regarding the great men which appear in their litera- ture. They imagined themselves, at various times in their lives, to be like the heroes they had created. The concept of the hero prevalent in the nineteenth century is a logical outgrowth of the psychological and in- tellectual conflict which afflicted the intelligentsia of the period. This concept served to satisfy man's emotional need for an all-powerful father figure capable of protecting him from his fears by providing him with a feeling of secur- ity and a means of salvation. Equally as important, this concept could embody a synthesis of the new philosophies of Positivism, Materialism, and Empiricism and serve as a focal point for an intellectually satisfying value system. Heroism, in one form or another, pervaded much of nine- teenth-century literature and clearly influenced the poetic thought of Matthew Arnold, with which this study is primarily concerned. Arnold, faced like Carlyle and Nietzsche with the loss of traditional beliefs, reacted to that loss in a similar manner; he attempted to formulate some system of values by which modern man could find some measure of peace and satisfaction in life. In his poetry, as in the prose of 5 Carlyle and Nietzsche, these values are most often manifested in a heroic male protagonist. Although Arnold was stimulated by the same forces which affected the thinking of both Carlyle and Nietzsche, he was intellectually and temperamentally quite different from them. As a result, the type of hero appearing in his poetry con- forms in only a few respects to the nineteenth-century heroic concepts best represented in the works of Carlyle and Nietzsche. In many more significant ways, his heroes do riot fit into the heroic pattern of his time. This study is an attempt to determine the extent to which Arnold's poetic heroes conform to the type prevalent during the nineteenth-century and to describe how they deviate from the norm. It will investigate, too, some of the factors which appear to account for his particular kind of hero. To better understand the extent to which Arnold used and modified the heroic concepts of his time, one should consider the history of these concepts, emphasizing their development in the nineteenth-century by such representative figures as Carlyle and Nietzsche. CHAPTER II THE GENESIS OF A NEW SYNTHESIS The heroic image of man evolved from the classical epic image of the Gods which depicts them as beings larger than life—infinitely competent, infinitely virile, and, to some extent, able to impose their wills on the ever-changing cosmos. They embody all that the human psyche aspires to, yet escape all the snares which prevent man from completely fulfilling his aspirations in his own finite life. The Gods make love, wage war, and command the elements on a grand scale, escaping the responsibilities which burden and thwart man when he engages in such pursuits. Almost without exception mythographers agree that the epic image of the Gods which man creates evolves from his overpowering psychic desire to escape-what he knows is in- evitable—the certain annihilation which awaits him. Man, as a creature capable of conceptualizing, must live out his life bearing the awesome burden of the knowledge that he is doomed to die. He escapes from this dark and horrible W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance (New York, 1957) , passim. • 6 7 dilemma of reality by creating the idea of a nature which is capable of ultimately transcending death. When man emerged into literacy, this notion was already fully developed, and thus the earliest literatures of all peoples, almost without 2 exception, is mythic. In tracing the heroic image of man from the advent of literacy, one finds Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 544-484 B.C.) to be of significant interest in that he worked out a dis- cursive rather than a literary or symbolic basis for heroism. The qualities of greatness, courage, and virility which the Gods possess in mythologies, he applied, in his philosophical fragments, to man.^ Although only a small volume of his ideas is extant, they are of great interest and significance in the study of the development of heroism in modern times. The majority of these fragments of Heraclitus can be reduced to a few general principles. He believed that there can be no harmony without strife and that all things come into being through strife. God he defines as war and peace and adds that war arid the noble deeds which are part .of war delight the divine being. In fragment 44 of his writings, ^Ernst Cassirer, The Myth of the State (New Haven, 1946), p. 4$« 3 Frederick Mayer, A History of Ancient and Medieval . Philosophy (New York, 1950), p. 34«