THE UNIVERSITY OP CHPCAG01 *' FUNCTIONAL NATURE OP THE PHILOSOPHICAL CATEGORIES A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OP THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OP ARTS AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY BY JACOB ROBERT KANTOR CHICAGO, ILLINOIS AUGUST, 1917 °! I ! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 698672 THE FUNCTIOIIAL NATURE OF TIE PHILOSOPHICAL CATE^ORIEP. Prolegomena to an Instrumental Interpretatton of the History of Philosophy. Contents. Part One - The Realistic Attitude toward Experience. Chap. I. The Pre-Athenian Period. Physical Realism. Chapt. II. The Athenian Period a) The Platonic Phase. Epist ontological Realism b) The Aristotelian Phase. Methodological Realism. ."■"V .• , Part Two - The Transition period.■J v ‘ Chap. I. The Hellenistic Period. Chap. II. The Alsxanirain Period Part Three - The Romantic Attitude toward Experience. Chap. I. The Roman-Christian Period. Chap. II. The Early Scholastic Period Part Four - The Natural!0tic Attitude toward Experience. Chap. I. The Scholastic Period. Chap. II. The Nationalistic Period. Chap. III. The Experience Period., Part Five - The Humanistic Attitude toward Experience. Chap. I. The t>ersonalistic Period. Chap. II. The British Period £hap. III. The Kantian Period Chap. IV. The Current Attitudes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Preface, This work aims to iudiaate the role of categories in some phases of the main current of philosophical development. It does not pretend to give exhaustive lists of categories used in the determina­ tion of experience. Jt is in no sense a history of philosophy. It aims only to point out that the various categories used are determina­ tions of experience, and to indicate in some sense how t o changes in experience bring about serious modifications in the categories or evaluations of that experience. This work being based upon the hypothesis that the philosoph­ ical categories are a -particular clas^ of evaluations of the total ex­ perience .Whether or not the philosophers are aware of the fact, it does not in all periods dlsc\iss speoific categores but fefers to the mass of them as the general attitude of the thinker or period. In all cases the attempt is made to describe the kind of experience which on the physical side led to the appreciation that the categories are constituent factors of experience. The appended analytical tables of contents are net intended to be indices of the material used but merely running guides to some of the antstanding arguments. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INTRODUCTION Analytical table of contents. The futility and bareness of philosophy is owing to a failure to appreciate its aim and purpose. Philosphsrs do not fully appreciate the significance of the categories they are using, when categories are understood as evalua­ tions of experience, which is a special case of experience, the' prob­ lems of the thinker are kept definite. V'hsn the nature cf categories is attended to, the history of philosophy takes on a new significance. It cannot be longer considered as a record of abstract logical systems. A survey of philosophy indi­ cates the relation of the abstract formulation to concrete experience and the changes in the formulation by the demand of the concrete ex­ perience . The extreme value of category studies comes out in the con­ sideration of reoent philosophical attitude?. In recent times the value of concrete experience has become so prominent a factor in formulated attitudes, that these attitudes have stressed the surface aspects of experience to the neglect of some of the more significant features. A study of the categories of philosophy will serve as an aid in distinguishing them from categories of science and religion. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INTRODUCTION Philosophy from the earliest times has had to defind itself with great valor from its enemies. Philosophy, however, has suffered far more from ite friends than from Its enemies. In the earliest time Plato1 found it necessary to protest against the condemnation of philosophy and to explain why it is attacked. This state of affair has persisted from that time to this and philosophy still has to struggle to maintainiits plaoe as a legitimate discipline. The dif­ ficulty with philosophy hasbeen a laok of appredlation of its functions and purpose. Thus we have today the. statement of one of the most conscientious devotees of philosophy that philosophy has claimed more and achieved less than any other, scienoe.2 This writer falls to afford philosophy any oomfort because in common with those he oritizes, he mistakes the method and purpose of philosophy. Mr. Russel alms to reduce philosophy to a series of abstract and oontentless propositions which have perhaps a remote if any oonnaotion with experience. The history of philosophy appears to be a series of futile attempts to solve the problem of knowledge and existenoe. In the earliest times philosophy aimed at discovering the ultimate facts of existence in the form of the stuff of the world. Later, with the growth of the ideas of man’s importance, there developed the viewpoint that the problem of philosophy was really a problem of knowledge. In still later times the problem of philosophy was implicitely determined as an effort to ex­ plain the world in terms of human experience. It is only in very recent times that philosophy is beginning to make explicit to itself its func­ tion as an attitude toward actual human experience. These various 1Theaetdtus 174. Republic VI,VII. Buthydemus 307^ j. g iy --rw i , . °Russeli- Our Knowledge of External World. 10 ... Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. philosophic^. formulations mark the stages in the empirical develop­ ment of philosophy in its attempt to realize its purpose and the means for atuaning it. In the consideration that this development of philosophy is entirely empirical is implied the question as to the futility of the previous philosophical formulations. To designate as futile all earlier stages of philosophy would he an erro? since each individual philosophioal formulation is a definite function of the experience of the time. In assuming this attitude one precludes ipso facto the idea of complete error in previous systems* fo* that would imply an eternal and statio standard. From the standpoint of any particular time it is possible to judge whether a philosophic attitude adequately represents the period. As an example there is suggested the extreme unsuitability of an absolute idealism or a hqman empirioism to interpret current experience. To formulat such attitude* to day would be to develop false and futile philosophy. We may expect a philosophical position to be especially cognizant of the experience to which it is a formulated attitude. The futility of philosophy is best illustrated by the situation in which thinkers bring back into relief positions which were developed under other circumstances. It is quite an erroneous method to interpret experience with categories bor­ rowed from quite other times and conditions. In current thinking^! i new realism appears as an attitude whioh attempts to interpret twentieth century experience with a method borrowed from the seventeenth. In every such case the presHure of the present experience forces a mod­ ification in the formulated attitude, but the attempt to make living experience fit into a dead shell bespeaks a lack of awareness of the philosophical function. The genuine fuitllity of philosophy should be carefully distinguished from the apparent. There are two, entirely Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. opposed situations here. The apparent futility of philosophy is explained by the fact that the critics of philosophy consider it as an absolutely rigid and permanent explanation of the world and man* The change of futility made from this standpoint obviously has no merit. Philosophy is an attitude toward experience and naturally enough it changes with that experience. The genuine philosophical futility is found in the fact that thinker?? fail to realize that philosophy is a highly oonacious evolution of experience. The problem of philosophy is tn make a systematic and valid (■< <-' i >.» i \ evolution of experience. This evolution is a oonscious orientation with respect tc the objects and condition which constitute the exper­ ience of the individual and the race. Philosophy is a highly conscious and deliberate determination of the nature of experience. Philoaphy is a critical evolution of experience which stresses the essential significance of experience. The motives guiding the determination of philosophy all relate to the ultimate purpose of brining about the definite orientation of oho thinker in hie world. The evolutions of philosophy are coincident with the general determination of experlenoe. Where there is experience there is always this process of orientation. In fact experience in great part i£ nothing more than a determination of objedta and conditions which constitute^ experience, for purposes of action and thought. The enrichment of experience is the further orientation among the objects and conditions determined in previous experience. In the more advanced and specialized kinds of experience this process is more familiar. The sciences all illustrate this proces? of determining experience for specific purposes. The orienta­ tion in the world of a particular kind of phenomena has its nature in a more cr lees definite need. Up to the point where the sciences Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. merge with philosophy this orientation for a specific purpose goes on. The difference between this and philosophy lies in the difference in motive. In method and material the work of philosophy is entirely continuous with that of all other disciplines which formulate the meaning of experience and point the way to further experience. The difference between philosophy and science is a difference in degree of criticism in handling the materials, a difference which is entirely / plausible because of the contributing conditions in the respective situations. Between science and what may be called ordinary exper­ ience we find also a difference in degree. In the latter case we may name the difference expertness. The scientist deals with the same objects and conditions that the ordinary experience deals with, but •V" there is present a vastly greater amoung of expertness in handling the objects and conditions. To sum up,philosophy is an attitude toward experience, an attitude that is rigorously and critically formulated. Philosophy is an attempt to construct categories which will determine the nature and the meaning of experience. This work of determining and conditioning experience is a continuous process with the faot of experience itself. Experience is an act of determination of some kind or other whether ti*e end of the experience or some act or knowledges, either a3 preparation for an act or some other end. This act of experience as determination may go on in terms which are not in any sense oognitive but as the ineraotion of objects, to one of which at least the aotion makes an appreciable difference. In the degree with which this experience beoomes complex' there emerges a series of determinations or categories which give definition to and a sense of control over the experience. The categories of philosophy are more definite and usually more Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. permanent evaluations of experience than we find in most of the disciplines. This is owing to the fact that the motive which guides the formulation of the philosophic attitude is an interest in the more permanent phases of experience, and in the more permanent experiences. Cause as a philosophical category has wider implications and a more permanent significance than cause as a scientific category. To insist upon this point brings out the relationship between the various forms of categories. The most damaging criticism that may be leveled at present day philosophy is a* failure to appreciate the importance of the categories. To understand the nature of the categories is to appreciate the task of philosophy better and to exert by that faot a wholesome influenoe upon the solution of the philosophical problems. If the thinkers would appreciate the faot that philosophy is an attitude toward experience and that an attitude is a sublimation of experience, then the value of the categories whioh are the components of exper­ ience and the attitude alike, would be more appreciated. This would result in a greater agreement among philosophers and in a greater unity in philosophic thought.. The change of futility socf^sn laid at the dcor of philosophy, tend^ to disappear. The historian of /' philosophy would have the task of accounting for the kind of experience which influenced a particular foraniation. The typeJof categories used to describe experience would be traced as far as pratioable in the experience of the period in which they are formulated. The history of philosophy as usually written is a record of system making. The histories describe the attitude which is takdn toward experience at & particular time as a logical formulation. The conditions under which the particular system is developed are not brought out. There is a record of the categories used^whether the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. philsoph^er himself formulates them in a table on not, but the meaning of these categories as evolutions of experience is not dis­ cussed, With the appreciation of the value of the study of cate- gores new light is thrown upon the development of the history of philosophy. The philosophical experiences are now brought into con­ tact with the other kinds of experience. The determination of the philosophical attitude are found to be of a piece with those of the other sciences and all other phases of experience. The study of philosophy as a detached form of intellectual manipulation will lose its standing and justification among philosophers. An adequate interest in the nature of categories must lead to the investigation of what the experience is whi&h yields a certain kind of categorization system. The concrete eserienoe which forms the background for any such system will be inquired into, and this will serve to throw much light upon philosophical pursuits. The his­ tory of philosophy Indicates how in different periods the whole of * * experience is categorized in cognitive categories, at other times A: great stress is laid upon affecive of volition categories. The ex­ perience at the basis of these forms of philosophy will be examined and the cause for this apparent misinterpretation of experience will be determined. Experience1 is sometimes entirely neglected to ethical or mental or material categories and here also the basis in the actual experience of the time would be investigated. In fact there would be an interest awakened in experience itself as well as in the specific attitude toward that experience. The determination of experience in terms of a minute part of it will be exposed as a * serious fallacy in philosophy. There will no doubt arise from this lln the history of philosophy us^ tlie term reality in place of ex­ perience: the thinkers are employed, of course, with reality. y ' "'''v_________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.